20th Century Europe

British ship, but 128 Americans killed; further pushed the U.S. to get involved in the war

One of the worst examples of loss of life during WW1; the Germans didn't even want to capture Verdun, they just wanted to suck the French into quicksand and drain their resources; the Germans knew the French would defend Verdun over anything, because it had huge historical significance

One of the worst examples of loss of life during WW1

Germany tried to get Mexico to attack U.S. in the event U.S. declared war on Germany; sent to German ambassador Eckardt; Mexico would receive Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, as well as arms; Americans intervene the telegram and decode it

Germany was afraid that the Zimmermann telegram would suck the U.S. into the war; this act was a defense mechanism

By this time: US troops ("doughboys") had already begun to arrive; Austria-Hungary is very weak; the Allies were weak; Russia had pulled out, meaning the Germans were now fighting a single-front war; so, they go on offensive!
Battles of the American Expeditionary Forces: Catigny, Chateau Thierry, Belleau Wood--> important to the offensive

Last offensive of the Allies; stretched the whole western front; ends on Armistice Day

Germany signs Armistice with Allies
Poland receives independence

German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires have collapsed
Germany's reparations: reduction of army(just large enough to put down any possible Bolshevik revolts) and elimination of air force; crippling reparations debt; "War Guilt Clause" said that Germany accepted full responsibility for the war; Germany's overseas colonies given to European powers/Japan (no more self determination)
French occupy the Rhineland
Bulgaria loses territory
Vienna becomes capital of Austria
Hungary loses most of its territory, received partly by Romania

Part of the Treaty of Versailles; Germany is not to involve itself in Austria

Part of the Treaty of Versailles; dismembers the Turkish-Ottoman Empire

Factors:
Food shortages in Petrograd (home to large pop. of industrial workers)
caused by inflation; peasant-farmers didn't want to sell produce for devalued rubles
lack of loyalty to tsarist government: Nicholas II was not an able leader, and his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, was a German, which lead to mistrust
Horribly embarrassing war
the oppressed Russian masses bone the brunt of the millions of losses
Nicholas II made incremental reforms that undermined his rule

The Russians make an embarrassing offensive at the Germans; end up retracting from the war

Tsar tries to return after the fall of Russia out of the war; he is abdicated; the Provisional Government (Kerensky) and the Soviet (Trotsky) are left in the awkward position of serving as dual governments
The provisional gov grants civil liberties, including the right to strike
Eventually, the Soviets/Trotsky pull off a coup d'etat; although they are the minority, they are the well-organized minority
His dictatorship results in a Civil War (Whites vs. Reds)

Between the REDS (Bolsheviks/Soviets; well-organized, good leader-Trotsky) and the WHITES (unified in anti-Bolshevism, but otherwise uncoordinated; why they were unsuccessful)
This is an example of how the well-organized minority often comes on top against the unorganized majority

Promoted capitalist ideas (free market) under the Soviets; IRONIC, because it promoted capitalism, and it worked! (looked bad for the communists)

Replaced with Stalin; Trotsky underestimated Stalin's capabilities; Stalin manipulated public perceptions; was excellent at ruthless political fighting; Lenin couldn't stop Stalin from taking over, because Lenin was very ill at this point/died

GOAL: to eliminate any possible threat within the party, and in society as a whole
millions were executed or sent to labor camps (the "Gulag")
"show trials"; arbitrary use of terror in society served a purpose; even children were encouraged to report their parents

Lead by Gabriele D'Annunzio ("man of action")
sends troops to Adriatic city of Fiume, to negotiate with the Yugoslavs (the Treaty of Versailles left Italy vulnerable from the right, or Yugoslavia, after giving Fiume to Yugoslavia)
it was a failure
forced the issue; pumped up nationalism/ Italian determination

Victor Emanuel III coopted Mussolini; launched "putsch" (inflating your real power, seized the moment; makes a move on the royal family); then, march on Rome--- successful, Mussolini becomes Prime Minister

started the interpretation that the Versailles Treaty was unfair (intellectuals, even Lloyd George, bought it; fueled a sense of guilt across Europe for Germany; the only one who didn't buy it from the start was Churchill

after failed attempt at storming Munich, then Berlin, Hitler is put in prison; serves only one year and comes out a national figure

Boosted Hitler's popularity significantly; following this event is a crucial time for the Nazi party (1929-1933)

Reasons for Hitler's rise:
weakness of Weimar Republic
Dissatisfaction with Versailles Treaty
Great Depression
Hitler's personal charisma
He was greatly underestimated by his opponents

allows Hitler to combine the titles "chancellor" and "Fuhrer"

following the assassination of a German official by a Polish Jew, the S.S. and other Nazi activists launched attacks on specific Jewish businesses and homes throughout Germany

Example of use of fear to gain total control

made the swastika the official symbol of Nazi Germany; deprived Jews of citizenship and declared them "subjects"; had to wear the star of David; Jews could not marry non-Jews

"1st move"

Justified by "self-determination"; very popular
forbade by Versailles in the St Germain Settlement

Hitler's actions cannot be rationalized anymore
The Czechs were "sold out" at the Munich conference

waiting period/"phony war" on Western Front

Germany occupies the North of France; collaborationist Vichy regime, under Marshall Petain, in the South of France

Hitler needed to gain control of skies over English channel in order to invade the island
Blitzkrieg approach (Hitler did not want to repeat the static warfare of WW1)
June 17th-June 22: Britain fights Hitler ALONE

largest invasion in history; achieved total surprise
sheer numbers of men was very significant
this was the first Nazi battlefield defeats that they suffered in the east
German invasion of the USSR radicalized the war as a whole (beginning of the Holocaust)
Before Barbarossa: Yugoslavia rises against Hitler; drain of resources
Greece: Hitler gets involved there(because Italy was messing with Greece); Greece wins!
Battle of Stalingrad

Stalingrad was strategically located on the Volga River; key to southern oil fields in Caucasus
the city, being named after Stalin, had huge symbolic importance
urban fighting; house-to-house
total defeat of an entire German army (350,000 men)
1.25 million Soviet soldiers killed
Red Army rebuilds itself; takes offensive; Hitler on DEFENSIVE from this point forward

opened a "second front" in the west; this is what the Nazis were residing on not fighting this whole time; made Germany's defeat inevitable (only a question of simply how long and how many more would die)
amphibious invasion (most difficult of all types of operations)
the significance of a few hours was huge
IF IT HAD FAILED?
the war would have been prolonged for 1 or 2 more years (enough time to prepare for another invasion)
atomic bombs might have been used first on Germany
If D-Day had failed, but Hitler's assassination attempt (Stauffenberg) had succeeded, then the Stauffenbergs would have taken over Germany and turned on the Communists (NATO before NATO)

Last meeting of the "Big Three" (Stalin, FDR, Churchill)
Eastern Poland to Stalin (big accomplishment for Stalin; achieved the dreams of Alexander I); Poland's provisional gov to be Communist-dominated
Churchill recognizes Stalin's "sphere of influence"

intended to end the "War of the Worlds" (WWI and WWII) FOR GOOD: UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER

intended to end the "War of the Worlds" (WWI and WWII) FOR GOOD: UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER

Establishes the United Nations