Nationalism in 19th Century

In the elections for the presidency held in December 1848, 4 republicans who had been associated with the early months of the Second Republic were resoundingly defeated by Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Within 4 years, president Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon.

The French coup d'etat on 2 December 1851, staged by Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (at the time President of the French Second Republic), ended in the successful dissolution of the French National Assembly, as well as the subsequent re-establishment of the French Empire the next year. Louis-Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, reclaimed his uncle's throne as Emperor of the French (taking the name Napoleon III) and reestablished universal suffrage (previously abolished by the Assembly).

The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian in a Bonapartist scene. As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service.

Second Empire was period in France under the rule of Emperor Napoleon III . In its early years, the empire was authoritarian but enjoyed economic growth and pursued a favorable foreign policy.

1852 to 1870 was the in which Napoleon III ruled the Second Empire. He gave his country two decades of prosperity under a stable, authoritarian government but finally led it to defeat in the Franco-German War.

Napoleon III's participation in the Crimean War had been rewarding. As heir to the Napoleonic Empire, Napoleon III was motivated by the desire to free France from the restrictions of the peace settlements on 1814-1815 and to make France the chief arbiter of Europe. In the decline of the Ottoman Empire, he saw an opportunity to take steps towards these goals.

Focused on a serious overhaul of the Russian system. He instituted a series of reforms including the emancipation of serfs.

The Treaty of Paris of 1856 settled the Crimean War between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The treaty, signed on March 30, 1856 at the Congress of Paris, made the Black Sea neutral territory, closing it to all warships, and prohibiting fortifications and the presence of armaments on its shores. The treaty marked a severe setback to Russian influence in the region.

The imperial parliament, also known as the Reichsrat, had a nominated upper house and an elected lower house of representatives. Although the system was supposed to provide representation for the nationalities of the empire, the complicated formula used for elections ensured for the election of a German-speaking majority.

Having lost much popularity, the emperor inaugurated a more liberal domestic policy, widening the powers of the legislative assembly and lifting many restrictions on civil liberties. A commercial treaty (1860) with Great Britain opened France to free trade and improved Franco-British relations. Imperialistic expansion was pushed by the French-British expedition (1857–60) against China, the acquisition of Cochin China, and the construction of the Suez Canal. Less fortunate was Napoleon's intervention (1861–67) in the affairs of Mexico; the French troops finally withdrew upon the demand of the United States, leaving Emperor Maximilian to his fate.

Peasants could now earn property, marry as they chose, and bring suits in the law courts.

Alexander II instituted a system of zemstvos, or local assemblies, that provided a moderate degree of self-government. Representatives to the zemstvos were to be elected from the noble landowners, townspeople, and peasants. Zemstvos were given a limited power to provide public services, such as education, famine relief, and road and bridge maintenance. They could levy taxes to pay for these services. Other legal reforms included the creation of a regular system of local and provincial courts and a judicial code that accepted the principle of equality before the law.

Also known as the Compromise of 1867. It created a Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part of the empire had a constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital. Holding the two states together was a single monarchy, a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances.