19th Century

During the Napoleonic era, King Fredrick William III, following the advise of his two chief ministers, Baron Heinrich von Stein and Prince Karl von Hardenberg, instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon.

The British expected Prussia to be the major bulwark against French expansion in Central Europe, but the Congress of Vienna also created a new league of German states, the Germanic Confederation, to replace the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine.

In order to keep Europe in a balance of power, The Congress of Vienna attempted to establish major defensive barriers against possible French expansion. To the north of France, they created a new enlarged kingdom of the Netherlands composed of the former Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) under a new ruler, King William I of the house of Orange.

When a deranged student assassinated a reactionary playwright, Metternich had the Diet of the Germanic Confederation draw up the Karlsbad Decrees of 1819. These closed the Burschenschaften, provided for censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control.

In an effort to create a stronger, larger state on France's northern border, the Congress of Vienna had added the area once known as the Austrian Netherlands to the Dutch Republic. The merger of the Catholic Belgium into the Protestant Dutch Republic never sat well with the Belgians, however, and in 1830, they rose up against the Dutch and succeeded in convincing the major European powers to accept their independence.

King Frederick William IV agreed to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, and work for a united Germany.

Under General Alfred Windischgratz, the Austrian forces crushed the suppressed the Czech revolutionaries in Prague. In October, the death of the minister for war at the hands of the Viennese mob gave Windischgratz the opportunity to defeat all of the radical rebels.

In the elections for the presidency held in December 1848, 4 republicans who had been associated with the early months of the Second Republic were resoundingly defeated by Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Within 4 years, president Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon.

The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, established a republic with a one-house legislature of 750 elected by universal male suffrage for 3 years and a president, also elected, for 4 years.

King Ferdinand I's nephew.

An elected all-German parliament whose purpose was to meet in Frankfurt and create a constitution for the new united Germany. It was dominated by middle-class delegates. However, the Frankfurt Assembly soon disbanded in 1849.

The June Days Uprising was an uprising staged by the workers of France from 23 June to 26 June 1848. It was in response to plans to close the National Workshops, created by the Second Republic in order to provide work and a source of income for the unemployed; however, only low pay, dead-end jobs were provided, which barely provided enough money to survive. The National Guard, led by General Louis Eugène Cavaignac, was called out to quell the protests. Things did not go peacefully and over 10,000 people were either killed or injured, while 4,000 insurgents were deported to Algeria. This marked the end of the hopes of a "Democratic and Social Republic" and the victory of the liberals over the Radical Republicans.

Triggered by the revolutions in Paris, revolutionary cries arose in Germany as well. The cries for change caused many Germany rulers to promise constitutions, a free press, jury trials, and other liberal reforms. In Prussia, King Frederick William IV agreed to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, and work for a united Germany.

In October, the death of the minister for war at the hands of the Viennese mob gave Windischgratz the opportunity to defeat all of the radical Viennese rebels.

Influenced by the revolution in Paris, revolutionary cries also arose in Austria. The Hungarian liberals under Louis Kossuth agitated for "commonwealth" status; they were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature. Demonstrations in Buda, Prague, and Vienna led to Metternich's dismissal. In Vienna, revolutionary forces rook control of the capital and insisted that a constituent assembly be summoned to draw up a liberal constitution. The Czech's began to demand their own government as well.

Unable to defeat Louis Kossuth's revolutionary forces, Tsar Nicholas I, sent a Russian army to aid the Austrians. The Hungarian Revolution was finally crushed in 1849.

The objective of the Congress of Vienna was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The result was redrawing Europe's political map. The leader of the Congress of Vienna was Prince Klemens von Metternich, who introduced the principle of legitimacy. In order to reestablish the peace throughout Europe, Metternich considered it necessary to restore the “legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions.”

An alliance between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria that renewed their commitment against Bonapartist power and agreed to meet periodically.

At this conference, the Quadruple alliance agreed to withdraw their army of occupation from France and add France to the Concert of Europe. The Quadruple Alliance became a quintuple alliance.

They were influenced by the ideas of the enlightenment and the successful revolutions in North America. Simon Bolivar led the revolutions in Northern South America against the Spanish. Jose de San Martin led the revolutions on southern South America.

Called to deal with the revolution in Spain and Italy.

Austria, Prussia, Russia were involved because Britain refused to agree to the principle of intervention.

A revolt by the Greeks against their Ottoman Turkish masters. The principle of intervention was not applied because it was white Christians revolting against the Muslims.

Austria, Russia, and Prussia authorized France to invade Spain to crush the revolt against Ferdinand VII.

Guaranteed independence of Latin America and warned against any further European intervention in the New World.

It ended the Russian-Turkish war. The Russians received the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia.

The three powers declared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new royal dynasty was established.