China: Ming Dynasty to Mao Zedong

China recovered from the Mongol rule, largely promoting Confucian learning, reestablishing the examination system, creating a centralized government, repairing and renovating cities, recovering the economy, and undertaking huge maritime expeditions.

He sought to enroll distant peoples and states in the Chinese tribute system while establishing Chinese power and prestige throughout the Indian Ocean- controlling trade without conquering new territories.

No mass conversion occurred, but officials and scholars did convert. The Jesuit scholars introduced many Western scientific concepts to China. In the end, the Jesuits were discredited and Christianity failed to really take told in China.

The sudden demand for silver caused its value to greatly increase, and ultimately allow Europeans and others who, until now, could not trade with the Chinese to enter this wealthy market.

Meaning "research based on evidence", kaozheng emphasized the importance of verification precision, accuracy, and analysis.

China expanded to about the size that it is today, establishing a new Court of Colonial Affairs to deal with these new territories, while not assimilating these new people into Chinese culture. Thus ultimately resulting in the impoverished regions there today. Land commerce was replaced by ocean commerce. This dynasty also marked the end of nomadic powers.

17th-19th century

As China expanded, the threat of the also expanding Russian Empire created the need for a treaty to secure the boundary between the two empires.

The illegal importation of opium flouted Chinese law and caused internal corruption. The drug was paid for in silver, causing a reversal in the flow of silver from China, weakening the economy.

The British were offended by this and started the first Opium War.