19th Century

This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power and development of machine tools. The transition also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. The Industrial revolution began in Britain and within a few decades spread to Western Europe and the United States.

The Russian tsar Alexander I and the Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich dominated the Congress of Vienna. Metternich, the architect of the peace, had witnessed the popular violence connected with the French Revolution while a student at teh University of Strasbourg. it left him with a lifelong hatred of revolutionary movements. At the congress of Vienna his central concerns were checking Russian expansionism and preventing political and social change he favored treateing the defeated French with moderation. Nevertheless, he remained an archconservative who readily resorted to ahrsh repressive tactics, including secret police and spying. But the peace he crafted was enormously significant and helped prevent a major European war until 1914. The Concert of Europe was teh body of dipolmatic agreements disigned primarily by Austrina minister Klemens von Metternich between 1814-1848, and supported by other European powers until 1914. Its goal was to maintain a balance of power on the Continent and to prevent destablizing social and political change in Europe.

Since the late 1700s steam engines have become a major source of mechanical power. The first applications were removing water from mines. In 1781 James Watt patented a steam engine that produced continuous rotative motion.

Napoleon III was the first President of the French Republic and the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. Elected President by popular vote in 1848, he initiated a coup d'état in 1851, before ascending the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until 4 September 1870. He holds the distinction of being both the first titular president and the last monarch of France.

He was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors,[1] and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species,

In 1779, Ludd is supposed to have broken two stocking frames in a fit of rage due to the advancement of technology. After this incident, attacks on the frames were jokingly blamed on Ludd. When the “Luddites” emerged in the 1810s, his identity was appropriated to become the folkloric character of Captain Ludd

A conservative German statesman who dominated European affairs from the 1860s to his dismissal in 1890 by Emperor Wilhelm II. In 1871, after a series of short victorious wars, he unified most of the German states (whilst excluding some, most notably Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. This created a balance of power that preserved peace in Europe from 1871 until 1914.

Engels and Marx- Das Kapital
foundation for what they believe is the basis and definition of capitalism: Attempt by the owners of production to exploit, to whatever degree possible, the labor they employ… this is how companies draw their profit and surplus value
Communism “scientific socialism”
Marx’s called for workers everywhere to unite to create a powerful political force. Introduced a new concept “The Welfare State”- everybody should have their basics provided by the state

The Zollverein, or German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Established in 1818, the original union cemented economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories, and ensured economic contact between the non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family, which was also the ruling family of Prussia.

It’s main purpose was to restore power to the aristocracy
The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe, and served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations and United Nations.