Russian History (A-Level) Timeline 1855-1964

"It is better to abolish Serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below" (to the Marshall's of Nobility - This quote implies a far less honourable underlying intention; to protect autocracy and maintain fundamental control over the proletariat.

Censorship relaxed between 1858 and 1870 for literature and newspapers, allowing for greater criticism of autocratic dominance.
Books did not have to be submitted for prior censorship.
Newspapers could report government policy and trials.
Attempts were made to reduce/eliminate corruption at lower levels of the Church.
Some reform to improve conditions and treatment of ethnic minorities, but this was reversed after the Polish Revolt of 1863.

Freed 23 Million serfs.
Freedom to marry and own land/businesses.
Peasants could travel (no longer restricted to the Mir - migration of peasants to cities).

However:
It was a slow process.
Redemption payments over 49 years were counterproductive to reform - many peasants were forced to remain in the Mir until payments were completed.
Land redistribution's weren’t fair (gender inequality).
Strip farming remained (agricultural backwardness).
Overall, the Emancipation was an appeasement - it offered limited freedom but increased expectations of change and reform.

Reception of the Emancipation:
Peasants - felt largely cheated as they still did not own the land outright and they had to pay for it over 49 years (effectively buying their freedom). There were over 1000 disturbances during 1861. Increased expectation for reform.

Nobles - disgruntled because they felt they hadn't been compensated for the loss of their rights over serfs, and therefore were losing influence.

Radical intelligentsia felt the emancipation protected the nobles and betrayed the peasants, which led to a growth in opposition.

Occurred because of the humiliating defeats suffered in the Crimean War, 1853-56:
Universal conscription for all over 21… although, military service was reduced from 25-15 years (including 9 years in reserve).
Corporal punishment reduced.
New command structure introduced, based on skill rather than status, however the officer class remained highly aristocratic - overall, the nation was certainly strengthened but class hierarchy remained a problem.

Moral case - many believed serfdom was morally and ethically wrong, with Nicholas I (Alexander’s father) stating it was “an evil, palpable and obvious to all.”

Economic reasons - “Serfdom serves as the main - even the only - hindrance to the development in Russia at the present time. Only with the emancipation of the serfs will the betterment of our rural economy become possible.” Milyutin

However, there was also a risk of revolt - concern for social stability as disturbances had been increasing since the 1840s. “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below”

Universities were given more autonomy over the employment of professors, as well as what courses could be taught; women could now attend.
Primary schools increased from 8,000 to 25,000 - with 1 million in attendance.
Responsibility for primary education was removed from the Church / given to the Zemstvo.
Higher education allowed more radical thinkers to access university resources.
Overall, education generally improved, however, increasing numbers of literate peasants created problems for autocracy… (unyielding obedience was being questioned…)

Simplified court system.
Independent, salaried judges to prevent corruption and bribery.
Jury system introduced - greater representation and fairness (backfired for autocracy in cases such as Vera Zasulich in 1878).
Courts made public and media coverage permitted.
Overall, it was good for the people; began to backfire for the government when political cases did not go their way - peasants sympathised with those on trial.

Alexander II established the Zemstva, an institution of local government, in 1864. Each Zemstvo possessed sufficient authority to resolve local economic and social problems.
Zemstvo would run aspects of local government such as roads, health and schools in rural areas. Attempted to improve public services, industrial projects and administer poor relief.
However:
Voting procedure favoured the nobles.
Powers were very limited.
Provincial governors could overturn zemstvo decisions - and often did if they posed a challenge to tsarist authority.
Overall, they allowed greater decentralisation on paper, but in reality the lack of power given to the Zemstva, and the interference and abuse of Tsarist rule limited its ability to change…

Karakozov's unsuccessful attempt to "destroy the evil Tsar" was a major turning point for Alexander's policy direction.

Education:
Reactionary Tolstoy was made Minister of Education; he wanted to tighten control.
Zemstva powers over education reduced; Church regained authority over primary schools.
Restrictions and crackdown in universities - modern liberal courses, such as history and science, that encouraged 'critical thought' were replaced with classical ones such as Latin and Greek.

Police, Law and Government:
Shuvalov (conservative) appointed head of the Third Section.
Tightened up censorship.
Tighter controls of students.
Persecution of ethnic minorities was increased through the Third Section (particularly harsh treatment of Jews).
Searches and arrests increased.
Political offenders could be exiled.
Show trials were held to deter others from revolutionary activity; this had adverse and unintended effects (Vera Zasulich).

Alexander II attempted to reduce growing unease and unrest by widening democratic consultation.
Loris-Melikov was Minister for Internal Affairs - he relaxed many restrictions and abolished the Third Section (although its powers were transferred to the Okhrana…)

The Loris-Melikov Constitution recommended that elected representatives should be involved in debating some state decrees.
Alexander accepted the report, but was assassinated by a bomb explosion on the same day (didn’t come to fruition -> impacted the style of rule of Alexander III -> hyper-reactionary).