Western Civ 1

1st-2nd Dynasties
Very structured hierarchy

3rd-6th dynasties
Height of the Pharaoh's Power

7-10th Dynasties
Nomarchs of small sections quarreled under weak Pharoahs

11-12th dynasties
Ended when the Hyksos invaded N. Egypt.

13th-17th Dynasties
N. Egypt dominated by the Hyksos, lower Nile under the control of the Pharaohs.
Ended with the expelling of the Hyksos by Ahmose

18-20th Dynasties
Expanded into the East Coast of the Mediterranean and the Sinai Peninsula, battled with the Hittites for the territory

Pharoah Akhenaton started the cult of the sun god Aton

Concluded the centuries long conflict between the Hittites and the Egyptians, concluding in a peace treaty, but no victor.

Under Cleopatra Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire.

Destroyed many palaces, but was recovered from quickly.

Destroyed colonies on Thera and created tidal waves destroying coastal cities on Crete.

Attacks destroying many settlements; probably from the Mycenaeans.

Effectively gone, but continued until 1200 bc

Arts develop, including metal working and marble sculpture.

Centralized Culture after several centuries of small villages

Last major undertaking of the Mycenaeans before their destruction by the Sea People

Guesstimate of the REA

Monotheistic Dualist religion, maybe as early as 1000 bce, but most commonly thought to be started around 600 bce.

Ended the Chaldean Empire and started the Persian Empire

Defeated Croesus of Lydia.

Conquered Egypt and Libya.

Conquered Indus Valley to the East and Thrace to the West

Defeated by Greeks

The Hebrews were slaves in Egypt and were freed by Moses

Urbanization moved out of the select areas and into a broader area, and encompassed more cultures.

Downfall of the Amorite dynasty, based out of Anatolia.

Adopted and adapted by the Phoenicians and has been developed as the basis of most western alphabets.
30 symbols, Phoenicians used 22, and simplified the cuneiform letters

Over disputed areas in Syria and Palestine.

Raiders who overthrew many governments.

Settlements all over the Mediterranean and as far North as Britain

All of the near east was conquered by the Assyrians

This made the Assyrians the first nation to control both the Nile and Tigris/Euphrates River valleys.

Emphasis on culture.

Exported the Hebrews after capturing Jerusalem.

Migration to destruction by the Sea Peoples

Amassed wealth came from raiding and trading.

Massive raids and invasions, large scale trading, high culture.

Decline in culture, Dorian Greeks were not as advanced as those who fled the Sea Peoples. Little to no information about this time period.

Composed by Homer as an account a a semi-mythological war taking place around 1250 bc

Held in honor of the Olympian Gods

Black Sea, Mediterranean, Iberia, Gaul, Corsica, Sicily, S. Italy, Libya, and the Nile Delta to an extent.

Against its neighbor Messenia.

Wrote 'Works and Days' - life of a farmer
And 'Theogony' - a history of the gods and their myths

Enslaved the inhabitants of Messenia.

he tried to establish a tyranny to settle socio-economic troubles, but was defeated by his rivals.

Benevolent and lower class pleasing, though he exiled those he didn't agree with.

Instituted by the tyrant Peisistratus

Profoundly religious and focused on Hubris.
'The Persians', 'Prometheus Bound' and the 'Oresteia' Trilogy.

Poet who wrote Odes to Sporting events

redefined the classes and phratries

Used mainly in study when artistic language was unnecessary.

The Ionians in Lydia rebelled against Persian oppressors, with assistance from the Greek Mainland, esp. the Athenians who raided Persian controlled Sardis.

Expressed deep sorrow on the plight of humanity;
'Oedipus', and 'Antigone'.

Important Statesman and General in the Athenian Empire.

The Greeks were victorious through superior strategy despite large numerical disadvantage.

designed and sculpted Athena for the Parthenon

Historian
Father of History, divided between East and Western Civ, recorded the Persian wars.

Vital battle, won mostly due to the efforts of the thetes rowers on the triremes.

Unconventional endings and methods, emphasizing human achievements over those of the gods.
'Medea' is a prime example of his work

A large Naval alliance signed at Delos, where the treasury was located, between over 100 poleis including Athens and Sparta.

Founded the Socratic method, and trained philosophers to find truth.

Hippocratic Oath, Father of Medicine, observation and chronicles of what works

Impartial account of the Peloponnesian War

Nephew of Pericles, and lost the Peloponnesian war

Comedic writer who used mainly satire. Extensive.

Sparta v. Athens

Honored fallen Athenians

Wrote the 'Dialogues' to record Socrates teachings, founded a school in Athens, abstract and spiritual gave the concrete and physical meaning, 'Republic' and Timaeus.

Peloponnesian War

Following revolt in subjugated polies

Founded the Lyceum, Taught every subject, believed in a Prime Mover who started all things, single universe, moderation is preferable to extremes, categorized government and was opposed to democracy (which he equated with anarchy).

Established Macedonia

Founded Epicureanism which is the pursuit of pleasure, in particular those of the mind.

Conquered much of the known world; empire stretching from Greece down the Nile and to the Indus river

Founded Stoicism; enlightened apathy, suppression of desire and acceptance of divine providence.

Heliocentric Theory

'Elements'

Calculated the value of pi, Archimedes screw, pulleys, levers,

Calculated the Circumference of the Earth

Developed the Astrolabe

Gave the Plebians certain rights

Greek ruler in S. Italy who had a Pyrrhic victory.

Naval battles Rome defeated Carthage and gained Sicily

Comedic Dramatist

First Roman Poet.
Chronicled the history of Rome in the 'Annales'

Started in Spain, Hannibal crossed the Alps, Rome attack Carthage.

Major defeat of Romans who then changed to Fabian tactics, fighting almost guerrilla warfare.

Scipio the Elder defeats the Carthaginians

Major victory of Rome against Greek tactics

Comedic Dramatist

Under the leadership of the Maccabees, the Jews rebel against the Seleucids.

First major Roman work of prose.

Wrote political essays, speeches and letters. Was executed for outspoken opposition.

Scipio the Younger destroys Carthage

Won General Marius fame

Late Republic, love poems to his unfaithful mistress

Famous slave revolt

Patronized by Augustus Caesar, wrote epics, Aenid, propaganda paid for by Caesar

Lyricist.

Historian

Member of the Triumvirate

Caused by Ceaser who marched into Rome with a victorious army

Caesar's supporters outraged at his assassination

Caesar assassinated on the 15 of March

Roman Literature; Characterized by Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Livy

Metamorphoses; on Greco-Roman Mythology,
On the Art of Love; a manual for seduction; exiled for following <

Founder of Christianity

Stoic Philosopher who wrote tragedies and was executed by Nero.

characterized by suppression, pessimistic; Tacitus, Seneca, Lucan, Persius, Petronius and Juvenal

Satirist

Wrote 'Pharsalia' as an epic history of the war between Caesar and Pompey. Executed by Nero.

Historian who highlighted the negatives of Roman civilization and the positives of Barbarian.

Satirist

Four rivals claimed Nero's throne

Astronomer; Ptolemaic model of the solar system/cosmos.

included Mesopotamia

most impressive Roman Dome

First Latin Novel; 'The Golden Ass'

Physician

In response to a Roman plan to build a pagan temple.

Founded Neoplatonism as a philosophy

Started the Manichaean cult

Added Magical Rituals to Neoplatonism

Added Magical Rituals to Neoplatonism

Desert Father who practiced ascetic regimes

Desert Father who organized a community of monks

Against Arianism

Created the Vulgate Bible

Spread monasticism to Europe

Tried to revert Christianity to persecution

Desert Father who practiced ascetic regimes

Theodosian Code

Added Magical Rituals to Neoplatonism

Against the split personality doctrine of Nestorianism

Against the monophysitism doctrine saying Christ was only spirit.

Western Rome

Codified Civil Law.

between the Ostrogoths and the Western Roman Empire

Founded the Byzantine Empire

Justinian Code, Conquered much of the former Western Empire, but was lost after his death.

Team of experts led by Tribonian

Forbade the use of icons in worship on the grounds it was idolatry.

Including the Balkans, Anatolia, S Italy and Crete & Cyprus

Asked the Pope for help against Muslim aggressors, initiating the Crusades.

'Final Prophet', Founded Islam.

Put down revolts to maintain unity.

Initiated Islamic conquests

Showed favoritism and caused inner strife

Started with the assassination of Uthman, ended with the death of Ali; Muhammad's son in law | Between Shiites (direct descent from Muhammad) and Sunnites (elected Caliphs).

Inc. Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine & Egypr

Expanded Conquests, moved capital from Mecca to Damascus, did not encourage mass conversion for financial reasons.

Abul Abbas overthrew the worldly Umyyads, moved capital to Baghdad, encourage philosophy & conversion.

Started the Frankish Merovingian Dynasty, United the two Frankish Groups

Merovingian king, converted to Catholicism, subjugated Arian Gauls, Vandals and Visigoth.

Wrote an account of Clovis

Roman and Celtic churches agreed on celebrations such as Easter.

wrote 'History of the English Church and People'.

First Carolingian Mayor of the House, fought the battle of Tours.

First Carolingian to claim the title of King, crowned by Pope Stephen II.

Charles Martel led the Merovingian Franks to defeat and stop Muslim expansion.

headed educational reforms in Charlemagne's Empire

Crowned Pepin the Short

Part of Lombardy, beginning of the papal states.

Expanded the Frank's empire.

Located on the Danube river

By Pope Leo III

Unable to hold the Carolingian empire together.

Muslim pirates

Divided the Carolingian empire into three parts;
Charles the Bald in the West
Emperor Lothair in the central area
Louis the German in the East

Settled border disputes between the three kingdoms. Continued debate until the 20th century.

Nomadic group from the East, raided the remnants of the Carolingian empire.

German ruler Otto the Great defeats the Magyars, who settle in Hungary.

Convinced Attila the Hun not to attack Rome.

Wrote the Benedictine Rule on Monastic life.

Greatly expanded the political powers of the Papacy and maintained excellently as Pope

A revision of the Nicene Creed caused a split in the Church

Strict use of Benedictine rule

Removed by Otto I of Germany and replaced by Leo VIII.

Intellectual Frenchman ordained by Otto III. Viewed as an outsider and not very respected, despite his excellent papacy.

Divided the church by attempting to dictate doctrine to the Eastern Church.

After the Filioque Controversy Pope Leo IX attempted to take control over Eastern churches. Both called the other heretical, and divided over the importance of the person of Christ.

Elected the Pope, forbidding secular rulers from intervening.

Initiated the Gregorian reforms

Began the Crusades at the Council of Clermont.

Preached for a crusade to win back Edessa, which the Muslims had taken.

Spokesman for the Cistercian Rule.

Called by Pope Urban II at the request of Byzantine emperor Alexius I initiating the crusades.

Christian victory; Succeeded partly because of inner strife among the Muslims.

By Robert of Molesmes

Founded second order of friars - the Dominicans.

Founded the first order of Friars - the Franciscans.

Saladin, Prince of Egypt, captured Jerusalem. Richard I, Philip II Augustus, and Frederick I led the crusade. Failure.

Height of Papal Power

Never even reached Israel, raided the Byzantine Empire for money.

Based out of Constantinople when the crusaders were distracted by the wealth of the Byzantines.

Absolutely brutal.

Ended in diplomacy, giving Christians access to the Holy Land.

Ordained by Pope Gregory IX to find escaped Cathars, and any other heretics.

Organized by S. Louis IX of France, won victories on the coast, but was forced to surrender and pay a ransom

led by Louis IX, tried to conquer Tunisia, Louis died in the campaign. The last outpost fell in Acre in 1291 ce.
No further crusades were attempted in the Holy Land. Redirected to Spain and the suppression of Heretics.

tried to assert papal power, but was beaten by French Soldiers and died as a result.

First Avignon Pope

Papal offices in Avignon France

In order to take their money

English reformer. Translated the Bible into English. Critical of Catholic hierarchy and emphasized Bible over Councils. Followers called Lollards.

Moved the Papacy back to Rome.

Czech (Bohemian) reformer, influenced by Wycliffe. Attended the Council of Constance in order to proclaim his beliefs, but was burned at stake.

French Pope, antipope to Urban VI. Refused to Abdicate

A Pope in both Avignon and in Rome

Elected under duress, refused to abdicate.

John XXIII elected as a compromise between the College of Cardinals in Avignon and Rome. Other Popes refused to Abdicate

Convened of all church leaders to rectify the Great Schism.

elected at the Council of Constance

prompted by the execution of John Huss, ended by a compromise between Hussites and the Chatholic Church

Called by Martin V for a general reform of the Church.

Pope, called the Council of Ferrara-Florence and reasserted Papal authority. Tried to reach a compromise with the Eastern Church.

An attempt to end the schism between East and West Churches.

Ordained Sylvester II

Sparked the Investiture Controversy

Convened by Emperor HEnry IV to depose Gregory VII in order to preserve his power. He was excommunicated and had to seek absolution.

Solved the Investiture Controversy with a compromise.

Organized and fought in the Second Crusade

Granted the Teutonic Knights land.

Attacked the Viking settlements.

Combined kingdoms of England and Normandy

Last Anglo-Saxon King, died w/out an heir.

Duke of Normandy, defeated the Earl of Wessex and King of Norway. Reorganized the government.

Member of the Angevin dynasty. Inherited the County of Anjou & Duchy of Normandy, married into French territories, invaded Ireland and forced Wales & Scotland to observe his rule. Tangled family, ruled and was a servant to the French monarchs. Added common law, juries, removed feudal courts, tried to have church trials in royal courts, but was overruled by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket.

Lion-Hearted, spent most of his rule on the Crusades.

Inept ruler, enforced unfair taxes in order to war with France w/out consulting his Barons, resulting in Civil war ending in the Magna Carta

Protected the feudal rights of the barons from the King

See Barons revolt, and Provisions of Oxford

Amendments to the Magna Carta, started a revolt of Barons

led by Simon de Monfort, because of the refusal of the King to recognize amendments to the Magna Carta.

1264 ce Capture of Henry III
1265 ce First Parliment

See First Phase of the Hundred Years' War

see battle of Agincourt

Started the Capetian Dynasty which ran until 1328

Organized and fought the Second Crusade.

Expanded power of the French Monarchy drastically, seized land from John of England.

Centralized power, very active, pious = St. Louis.

Used increasing power to crush enemies including Pope Boniface (over taxes). Expelled Jews. Increased taxes, manipulated and reinterpreted existing laws. Convened the first Estates General during his quarrel with the Pope.
Popular King.

First ruler of the Valois Dynasty.

see second phase

See 'French Retaliate'

Edward III claims French throne on his mother's side.

Centralized Monarchies in France and England fought many wars, collectively refered to as The Hundred Years' War

English longbowmen defeat French Calvary, ending the age of chivalric warfare.

Edward the Black Prince captured John II.

French concede the province of Aquitaine (~1/3 total area of France)

Charles V of France regained lost territory, sudden death resulted in a truce.

Henry V of England invades N. France, Philip the Good duke of Normandy assisted

Joan of Arc convinces Charles VII of France to go on the offensive.

After capture by the Burgundians in 1430 - executed by British.

Removing much support for England. England is left with a few minor coastal cities.

Spanish warrior/adventurer

Brought the combined city state of Kievan Rus to its heighth

Giant empire across China into E. Europe.

Pope Gregory IX gives the order to Christianize E. Europe to the Teutonic Knights.

Powerful ruler

Organize the 'Golden Horde', Moscow uses collaboration with the Mongols to grow their power.

Halted the Eastward Expansion of the Teutons.

Accepted Roman Catholicism and married into polish dynasty

Teutons defeat the Lithuanians & Poles

Overthrew the Mongols in the late 15th century and was poised to take over Russia.

Charismatic Theological teacher, in favor of using logic to solve disparities.

Political theorist, described medieval society as a body, with the King as its head.

companion of Roger Bacon

continued Bacon's work

Scientist who contributed greatly to the scientific method

Dominican Monk, wrote 'Summary of Theology' which combined faith and reason.

Pioneered Silk road.

venacular Italian poet

Added the illusion of depth to Gothic painting

wrote 'defender of the peace'.
Favored laymen's council to papal leadership.

'Ockham's Razor' foundation for modern scientific method.

Changed Aristotle's theory of motion to a theory of 'impetus'.

Popular Itaian poet

caused by over population

see Buridan

First printing Press

Father of Renaissance Humanism. Valued Roman writings. Poet Laureate of Rome

Renaissance Humanist

Advocated Civic humanism.

Civic humanist

Part of the family of wealthy Florentine nobles who ruled Florence much of the 15th Century.

Condottiere (mercenary-General) who conquered Milan and set up a dynasty there.

Built off Giotto's effects and created linear perspective.

Donation of Constantine = Fraud.

Built in Florence, designed by Brunelleschi.

Translated the complete works of Plato to Latin. Translated Neoplatonic works. Philosopher and Theologian.

Part of the family of wealthy Florentine nobles who ruled Florence much of the 15th Century.

Dominican Preacher, preached against luxury and corruption, called for destruction of artist works in "The Bonfire of the Vanities." Burned at stake as a dangerous fanatic.

Painter, Sculptor, Architect, Engineer, Scientist, Musician and Inventor. 'The Last Supper,' 'Mona Lisa,'

Milan, Florence and Venice allied against the Papal states and the Kingdom of Naples.

'Oration on the Dignity of Man'

Politician and author. Called for Italian political reform in 'The Prince.' Historical study of ancient Rome; 'The Discourses'.

Painter, Sculptor, Architect, Poet

'The Book of the Courtier'

Invaded Naples

Historian

French invasion, overthrew the Medici and instituted a Republic.

Led by Charles VIII

Invaded Milan.

led by Louis XII

'Lives of the Artists'

Invaded Italy.

Delayed payment.

designed by Michelangelo.

Flemish Painter. Used Gothic styles, atmospheric perspective.

Invented the movable type Printing Press

Contemporary of Jan van Eyck

Venetian Printer

German Painter; Allegorical works.

Introduced many Italian techniques to Northern Europe, inc. portraiture.

Contemporary of Albrecht Durer

German Painter; lively and intricate scenes of peasant life.

Began a movement to have religious experience in everyday life, known as The Modern Devotion.

Layman who preached the Modern Devotion

Wrote 'The Imitation of Christ' which expressed the Modern Devotional movement.

French Theologian who hoped to reform the Catholic church from the inside.

German Humanist; studied languages to better understand scripture. Published a Hebrew grammar.

Early reformer, believed in everyday study for all believers.

English Statesman who criticized society in the satirical essay 'Utopia'.

Worldly and corrupt Pope

Reformer known for his 95 Theses and his other works

Swiss reformer.

Requested annulment of his marriage, refused by the Pope. Created the Anglican Church and got his own divorce.

French Reformer, moved to Geneva Switzerland, Double predestination

Scottish Reformer who established the Presbyterian Church

Medici Pope | Proliferated the use of indulgences to pay for his worldly lifestyle.

Written by Martin Luther against the sale of indulgences.

Written by Martin Luther

MArtin Luther Refused to recant and was excommunicated.

refused the divorce of HEnry VIII

allowed the German Princes freedom of religion

Revoked the first

Lutheran Creed

between Swiss Cantons and Forest Cantons. Zwingli served as Chaplain and was killed.

Defensive Protestant Alliance

By Henry VIII

translated by Luther

Written by John Calvin

Anabaptist radical who captured the town of Munster.

Anglican Confession

Reformed the Anglican Church

Allowed the Princes to Choose Lutheran or Catholic.

Reformed the Anglican Church

Founded the Jesuit society

A Jesuit Missionary who preached in the Far East.

Rejuvenated the Carmelite order.

Intellectual sect, fanatics of the papacy.

Reformed the Catholic Church

Monitored newly published works and censured them.

Met three times, called by Pope Paul III

see Roman Inquisition,

Dominican Friar who led much of the Spanish Inqusition.

Conquered Constantinople

In England between the Lancaster and York Houses. Eventually won by the House of Tudor

Hired Swiss Mercenaries to conquer the Burgundians.

Beginning with their marriage and ending with Ferdinand's death. Institutes the Spanish Inquisition and streamlined the bureaucracy.

Brutal, searched for dissenters, esp. Marranos (Jewish Converts) and Moriscos (Muslim Converts). Stopped protestantism from spreading to Spain.

Conquered the Kingdom of Naples.

Last king of the House of York. Defeated by Henry VII.

Won the Wars of the Roses. Worked with Parliament and streamlined administration. Expanded Trade and limited warfare.

Conquered Milan

Founded the Anglican Church, boosted nationalism, built English Fleet.

fought the Valois Hapsburg wars.

Emperor starting in 1519 ce.
Abdicated Spanish throne 1556 ce.
Fought the Valois Hapsburg wars.

Captured Serbia and Hungary. Laid Siege to Vienna.

An attempt to end the Valois-Hapsburg wars. Failed.

Holy Roman Empire

Ended the Valois Hapsburg war, France admitting defeat.

Portuguese who started the Age of Exploration

Hired by Spain; discovered the Americas while searching for the Indies

Florentine Explorer who recognized the Americas as continents.

Campaigned against the harsh treatment of the Natives by the Spaniard colonists.

Portuguese

French. Sought NW passage.

Divided the World between Portuguese and Spanish Empires.

Portuguese

For Portugal

Portuguese trading posts In India, Indonesia & at the mouth of the Red Sea.

Spaniard

By German Cartographer Martin Waldseemuller after Amerigo Vespucci

Spanish Conquistador

Portuguese hired by Spaniard

Spanish Conquistador

Englishman who claimed N. America for the Crown

First permanent English settlement

Founded by French Explorer Samuel de Champlain.

Henry Hudson, explored the Hudson river.

By the Dutch

French merchant and Banker; Powerful in the court of Charles VII

First Major British joint-stock company

Traded in Asia

Traded in the Americas and Africa

Expanded the powers of the French monarchy

Allowed the French Monarchy to take over the Church

Systemised persecution of Hugenots

Over religion

Ordered by Catherine de Medici, against the Huguenots.

Highly active Chief Minister under Louis XIII. Granted limited religious freedom, proponent of Absolutist monarchy.

Huguenot, converted to Catholicism to retain peace. Established the Bourbon Dynasty

Granted Freedom of Religion

Figurehead, real ruler in Cardinal Richelieu

By Cardinal Richelieu

Lost the Netherlands, expanded religious suppression, first major defeat of the Turks.

Because of intense religious persecution.

First major victory against the Turks

Failed, due to a superior English Navy

Tried to reestablish Catholiscism

Reformed the Anglican Church and expanded tolerance of Private religion

Standardized the Anglican faith, differentiating it theologically from the Catholic Faith

Outlined England's theological stance?

Persecuted Catholics, KJV,

Assassination attempt because of the persecution of Catholics

Absolutist monarch, caused schism, estranged parliament and was executed.

in response to the Petition of Right

Tactless treatment of Parliament by the Stuarts

Northern Dutch provinces

Spain recognizes Dutch independence

Temporary religious compromise

Confederation of Protestant States in Germany

Confederation of Catholic States in Germany

Swede who conquered much of Germany during the Swedish Phase.

Catholic supression

Protestant revolt against the Catholic rulers of Bohemia

Began as a religious conflict over the rights of Protestants

Christian IV of Denmark led attack against the Catholic states, was defeated

Led by Gustavus Apolphus of Sweden, freed Northern Protestant States and conquered southern Catholic States. Victories lost.

Dynastic Conflict

Ended religious struggles, divided the country and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire.

Redistributed power, dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, left Religion to the rulers.

'On the Revolutions of Celestial Orbs' Heliocentric theorist, but had errors.

Written by Dominican Inquisitors, how to find witches

Alchemist who discovered that foreign bodies cause disease

Satirical author who criticized society.

Dissected cadavers - 'On the Structure of the Human Body'

'Republic', favored absolutist monarchies

Skeptical of beliefs without a basis

Mannerist, predecessor to Baroque painting

Precise observations led to elliptical orbits being discovered.

Satirist; Don Quixote

Studied the Pulmonary circulatory system

Mathematician, developed inductive reasoning, empirical methods. Contributed greatly to the Scientific method.

Popularized the Heliocentric world view

Collection of plays and sonnets

Discovered elliptical orbits and finished Copernicus's work.

by Jean Bodin

Dutch Baroque Painter

Role of the heart in the circulatory system

Used natural law to outline international law

'Leviathan', people need absolute rulers to keep them from depravity.

Cartesian Coordinates, deductive reasoning, Philosophy = "I think, therefore I am", Reasonable arguments for the existence of God.

Baroque Sculptor

Baroque Painter

Dutch Baroque Painter

Probability theory, conic theory, atmospheric pressure, Called for spiritual renewal through Janenism

by Hugo Grotius

William Harvey

by Thomas Hobbes