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Use Cases
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Resources
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Pricing
500 - 1648
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Politics before the nation-state:
* Stateless societies (“tribes”) – bands, chiefdoms
* Kingdoms, Empires
* Power and influence was restricted to a small, privileged group, and legitimated by tradition and religion.
Relations with outsiders:
* War, pillage, feuds and alliances
* Exchange of gifts, tributary relations
* Trade existed, but was limited in scope.
European Empires of the Middle Ages:
* Were multi-ethnic, e.g. ‘Holy Roman Empire’ 962-1648 (encompassed modern Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, parts of France and Italy)
* Monarch’s right to rule considered to come from God, not from the people
* Monarch’s power (in theory) subordinate to power of the Pope
* Various Kings contested this e.g. Henry VIII of England.
1648 - 1815
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The “Westphalian system” operated on balance of power:
* ‘Multipolar system’: Britain, France, Prussia/ Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia
Rival coalitions of great powers deterred each other
* This prevented large-scale wars
* This only broke down twice, but with catastrophic consequences
French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
World War I.
European Colonialism :
* Westphalian system did not deter wars of conquest of weak states “outside” the system - European states created great colonial empires - When non-Europeans revolted against colonialism, they appealed to the principle of “national self-determination” - Idea of “nation-state” spread to Americas, Asia and Africa.
1648 - 1918
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Collapse of multi-ethnic European empires (1648-1918):
Swept away by rising tide of nationalism
Authority of Catholic Church challenged
* Renaissance (scientific inquiry)
* Rise of Protestantism (rejected hierarchy of Catholic Church and Vatican).
Treaty of Westphalia (1648): Recognition of principle of state sovereignty – Birth of the modern state system
* Right of each Prince to determine religion of own state
* Recognition of exclusive sovereignty over own lands and people.
Key features of the nation-state
* Sovereignty, acknowledges no higher authority
* Acts in the name of “the nation” (the people, etc)
* May demand that the people make sacrifices in the name of “their” state.
1815 - 1914
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Britain emerged as the dominant world power after the Napoleonic Wars:
* Period of relative peace within Europe following Congress of Vienna (1815)
* British Empire came to control most key naval trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power
* Underpinned by industry, empire and naval supremacy.
1914 - 1945
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End of multipolar ‘balance of power’ system in Europe:
*Two great alliances of European powers clash: France/ Britain/ Russia/ Italy v Germany/ Austro-Hungary/ Ottoman empire.
World War I ends in social collapse, mutiny, revolution:
* The Russian Revolution and the rise of Communism
* Unstable economic recovery followed by the Great Depression (1929)
The rise of Fascism.
* Intensifying international rivalries:
* Imperial Protectionism, economic nationalism
* Ideological conflict – communism vs fascism vs liberal democracy
Rise of Non-European powers (US, Japan)
Failure of League of Nations, and ‘appeasement’ at Munich Conference (1938).
1945 - 1991
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Origins:
* US and USSR the dominant powers after World War II
* End of anti-Nazi “Grand Alliance”
Bipolar system emerges
* Failure of cooperation in UN
* Division of Europe into spheres of influence
* Tensions over nuclear weapons
* Collapse of colonial empires, independence of former colonies
The Cold War declared (1947):
* Truman’s policy of “containment”
* Global opposition to Soviet expansion and/or influence
* US sponsored regional alliances such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO, 1949) and ANZUS (1952)
* Zdhanov’s “two camps” speech
1991 - 2008
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US emerges from Cold War as ‘hegemonic power’
* Principally in military terms
* US economy stronger than Europe or Japan in 1990s.
* Constraints on U.S. Power:
Military power is better at deterring than compelling
Military power is best suited for dealing with other militaries
Not as well suited to dealing with non-state actors, insurgents
New economic competitors in 21st century
Economic crisis 2008 – present.
2007 - 2012
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Rise of China, India, decline in US economic power
* ‘Limited unipolarity’? – noting limits on US power
Reemergence of multipolar system?
* ‘Modified’ multipolar system (with EU, UN as key actors?).
- Impact of 9/11 and “Global War on Terror”:
New security threats (including terrorist acts against civilians)
* Traditional national security approaches less effective in ‘asymmetrical’ context.