A.p European History

Witch Hunting was a search for people known as witches who did magic or witchcraft to heal or hurt people. Found witches were tortured or exiled and brought to death. Witchcraft was illegal, and was always thought as used for evil. Witches were often burned or hung for long and horrible deaths. Many people who conducted witchcraft went into hiding to try to prevent their likely death.

He was the first Tudor king after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in August 1485. This battle saw the end of the Wars of the Roses which had brought instability to England. Henry VII was king of England from 1485 to 1509. His second son, also called Henry, inherited the throne and became Henry VIII. He died at the age of 21.

As a constitutional monarchy, Persia remained neutral throughout the entire war; however, given its strategic location between Asia and Europe as well its rich petroleum reserves, it has been one of the countries that was most significantly affected by the rivalry between the belligerents. Under the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907, the country was divided into northern and southern spheres of influence, while Russia was actively supporting the Persian monarch. From 1910 onwards, Russia sent Cossacks to Persia who fought rebellious tribes and bandits on the Persian Shah’s behalf. This support apparently served Russian political interests in the region.

The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Its religious aspects were supplemented by ambitious political rulers who wanted to extend their power and control at the expense of the Church.
The effects of the reformation or the protestant revolt as it known by Catholic scholars, were dreadful, Christianity was split asunder, millions have been brought up away from the grace of Christ's Church and educated in error. The splintering has only gotten worse in the last century with those separated from the Church splitting from each other and getting further and further away from God.

These were peasant uprisings in Germany. Inspired by changes brought by the Reformation, peasants in western and southern Germany invoked divine law to demand agrarian rights and freedom from oppression by nobles and landlords. As the uprising spread, some peasant groups organized armies. Although the revolt was supported by Huldrych Zwingli and Thomas Müntzer, its condemnation by Martin Luther contributed to its defeat, principally by the army of the Swabian League. Some 100,000 peasants were killed. Reprisals and increased restrictions discouraged further attempts to improve the peasants’ plight.

Reformation Parliament. Henry VIII's Reformation Parliament, which sat from 1529 to 1536, fundamentally changed the nature of Parliament and of English government. The King summoned it in order to settle what was called his 'great matter', his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, which the Papacy in Rome was blocking. The Reformation Parliament was so-called because it was the English Parliament, beginning in 1529, that passed and enabled the major pieces of legislation leading to the English Reformation.

The Submission of the Clergy was a process by which the Church of England gave up their power to formulate church laws without the King's licence and assent. It was passed first by the Convocation of Canterbury in 1532 and then by the Reformation Parliament in 1534. Warham and the rest of the Convocation, after debate, suggested a compromise on the articles which consisted of the Convocation not making new canons without the King's consent and would submit all previous canons to the King himself for assent or rejection and not to a committee and that their legislative power would be ended 'during the King's natural life' only.

The Prince is a political book written by Niccolo Machiavelli. This book was published in 1532. This book is known as a 16th century political treatise. It's original language was Italian but has been translated into many different languages and dialects. The primary idea of the book is to see what decisions a leader must make in order to be successful.

Henry VII married Anne Boleyn on January 25, 1533. Their marriage was denied and was considered void. They had to fight to fulfill their marriage. The couple broke the church's permission and went along with the marriage. Anne died in 1536.

More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther and William Tyndale. More also opposed the king's separation from the Catholic Church, refusing to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. After refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy, he was convicted of treason and beheaded. Of his execution, he was reported to have said: "I die the King's good servant, and God's first."

The constitutional importance of the statute lies in the fact that it modifies and consolidates the existing laws againt heresy: The rule of the canon law punished heretics by burning, and the case of Sawtrey in 1401 shows that the common law recognised the rule of the canon law, and therefore that a writ de haeretico comburendo could be issued at common law. This was reinforced by the Heresy Acts of 1401 and 1414, the first of which provided that heretics might be arrested on suspicion by the bishop, and those refusing to abjure or relapsing after abjuration were to be burned; and the second enabled the bishops to call upon the civil power for assistanee, and authorised courts of quarter sessions to receive indictments for heresy and to deliver persons so indicted to the bishops to be tried. The law against heresy was, however, considerably modified by Henry VIII. An Act of 1533 repealed the Act of 1401, and so deprived the bishops of their power to arrest on suspicion; but it confirmed the Act of 1414, and so made it necessary for proceedings in heresy cases to begin by indictment. This had the effect of discouraging prosecutions, and between 1533 and 1539 the cases were not numerous.

William of Orange, was sovereign Prince of Orange from birth, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel in the Dutch Republic from 1672, and King of England, Ireland, and Scotland from 1689 until his death. The House of Silent is a branch of the European House of Nassau, has played a central role in the politics and government of the Netherlands.

This Act was superseded in part by the Act of Uniformity 1552 which introduced the more Protestant prayer book of 1552 and imposed penalties for unjustified absence from Sunday worship. It was the logical successor of the Edwardian Injunctions of 1547 and the Sacrament Act of the same year which had taken piecemeal steps towards the official introduction of Protestant doctrine and practice into England and Wales. The Book of Common Prayer was far from just an English-language translation of the Latin liturgical books; it was largely a new creation, mainly the work of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, which in its text and its ceremonial directions reflected various reforming doctrinal influences.

The Scientific Revolution was known as the process that established the new view of the universe. Natural knowledge was only in the process of becoming scientific as we know it. Individuals devoted to natural philosophy might work in universities or in the court of a prince or even in their own homes and workshops.
During this time, many different scientists believed that the world worked in different ways. Copernicus said that the Ptolemaic System was the right way of the world. Ptolemaic system, mathematical model of the universe formulated by the Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy about ad 150 and recorded by him in his Almagest and Planetary Hypotheses. The Ptolemaic system is a geocentric cosmology; that is, it starts by assuming that the Earth is stationary and at the center of the universe.

English people, at this time, feared the power of Spain. To bring the two countries closer together, Mary accepted a marriage proposal from the king of Spain – Philip II. He was also a very strong Catholic. Mary’s advisors and friends warned her not to marry Philip but she went against their advice and married him in 1554. The people of England greatly feared that Philip would control England and this lead to Mary becoming very unpopular with her people

Mary I was queen from 1553 to 1558. When she was crowned queen, she was very popular with the people of England. It was this popularity that helped to quickly overturn the attempt to put Lady Jane Grey onto the throne of England. However this popularity quickly turned sour because of her religious changes and her marriage.

The Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which was made during the reign of Elizabeth I, was a response to the religious divisions in England during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. This response, described as "The Revolution of 1559", was set out in two Acts of the Parliament of England. In the month following her accession, Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel any of her subjects to follow her religion, but by the end of September leading Protestant churchmen. Mary had always rejected the break with Rome instituted by her father and the establishment of Protestantism by her brother's regents. Philip persuaded Parliament to repeal Henry's religious laws, thus returning the English church to Roman jurisdiction.

Dutch Art happened during a period in the history of the Netherlands, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first section is characterized by the Thirty Years' War, which ended in 1648. The Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century.
The transition by the Netherlands to the foremost maritime and economic power in the world has been called the "Dutch Miracle".

Shakespeare was a brilliant English poet, play wright, and actor. His ideas sparked the world and are still read today. He was married at the age of 18 and died upon the age of 52. He retired to Stratford-Upon-Avon once his works began to die down. He will be an everlasting home name and his writings will always be upon the world.

The religious problem festered with James. Since the days of Elizabeth, Puritans within the Church of England had sought to eliminate elaborate religious ceremonies and replace the hierarchical episcopal church under shops appointed by the king. Religious dissenters began to quickly leave England. This had the Puritans separate. James's foreign policy roused further opposition and doubt about his protestant loyalty.

Baroque Art is a highly ornate style of art. This style is used for many uses of agriculture. Baroque Art was popular until the late 18th century and then slowly began to fade off. This style of art originated in Rome and embraced painting and agriculture. Baroque Art showed richness and quality.

Agricultural revolution, gradual transformation of the traditional agricultural system that began in Britain in the 18th century. Aspects of this complex transformation, which was not completed until the 19th century, included the reallocation of land ownership to make farms more compact and an increased investment in technical improvements, such as new machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation.

Among those new crop-rotation methods was the Norfolk four-course system, established in Norfolk county, England, which emphasized fodder crops and the absence of the theretofore conventionally employed fallow year. Wheat was grown in the first year and turnips in the second, followed by barley, with clover and ryegrass undersown in the third. The clover and ryegrass were cut for feed or grazed in the fourth year. In the winter, cattle and sheep were fed the turnips. The development of Shorthorn beef cattle through selective breeding of local cattle of the Teeswater district, Durham county, typified the advances brought about by scientific breeding.

The religious problem festered with James. Since the days of Elizabeth, Puritans within the Church of England had sought to eliminate elaborate religious ceremonies and replace the hierarchical episcopal church under shops appointed by the king. Religious dissenters began to quickly leave England. This had the Puritans separate. James's foreign policy roused further opposition and doubt about his protestant loyalty.

This was the last and most drastic wars of the religion of the Holy Roman Empire. Religious and political differences had long set Catholics against Protestants. Also, the Calvinists against the Lutherans. All wanted power between their religious beliefs. This war shaped Europe into the way we know it today.

Charles I was born in Fife on 19 November 1600. He was the second son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark. On the death of Elizabeth I in 1603 James became king of England and Ireland. Charles's popular older brother Henry, whom he adored, died in 1612 leaving Charles as heir. In 1625 he became king.

When Parliament met in, it's members would only grant new funds if Charles recognized this petition of right. This document would require that henceforth there shall be no forced loans or taxation without the consult of Parliament. Also that no free man should be imprisoned without due cause. That troops should not be billeted in private homes. Charles agreed to the petition but it was unlikely that he would keep it.

John Locke was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism". Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as David Hume, Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness.

The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of England's government. The first and second wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.
The overall outcome of the war was threefold: the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II. The replacement of English monarchy with, at first, the Commonwealth of England and then the Protectorate under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell and subsequently his son Richard. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors' consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although the idea of Parliament as the ruling power of England was only legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688.

The Battle of Naseby was a decisive engagement of the English Civil War, fought on 14 June 1645 between the main Royalist army of King Charles I and the Parliamentarian New Model Army, commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell. It was fought near the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire. In the open fields of that small Northamptonshire village, parliament's New Model Army destroyed King Charles I's main field army. After nearly three years of conflict, this was the decisive battle of the Civil War.

A series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire between the Habsburgs and their Catholic allies on one side, and the Protestant powers and their Catholic Anti-Habsburg allies on the other. The treaties also ended the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognising the independence of the Dutch Republic. The peace negotiations involved a total of 109 delegations representing European powers, including Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, Philip IV of Spain, the Kingdom of France, Cristina of the Swedish Empire, the Dutch Republic, the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and sovereigns of the free imperial cities.

Pride's Purge has been called the only military coup in English history. There is a certain amount of truth in that claim. Certainly it was not usual for the army to interfere with the workings of Parliament, but that is what occurred on this occasion. Without Pride's Purge, it is possible that the execution of Charles I might never have occurred, and the monarchy might never have been abolished.

Though it is unclear whether army head Sir Thomas Fairfax actually ordered the purge, it seems probable that Fairfax's second, Oliver Cromwell, must have been aware of what was about to transpire. In light of his subsequent rise to rule under the Commonwealth, we can safely say that if the Purge had never occurred, Cromwell would never have had the powerful role in English history that he eventually had.

Charles I was born in Fife on 19 November 1600, the second son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark. On the death of Elizabeth I in 1603 James became king of England and Ireland. Charles's popular older brother Henry, whom he adored, died in 1612 leaving Charles as heir, and in 1625 he became king.

He was the king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, and king of England, Scotland and Ireland from the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 until his death. On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, in which he made several promises in relation to the reclamation of the crown of England. Monck organized the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April.

There were actually two treaties of Dover in 1670: one, which was secret was concerned with the conversion of England to the Roman Catholic faith, which was favoured by Charles II; and the other, which was formal, was concerned with an Anglo-French military and naval alliance designed to subjugate the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which was desired by Louis XIV. The secret treaty—in the negotiation of which Charles’s sister Henrietta Anna, duchesse d’Orléans, was deeply involved—was concluded on June 1. By it, Charles II was to receive £200,000 in money and the support of 6,000 French troops, if needed, so that he might declare himself a Roman Catholic, and a further £300,000 a year to enable him to join a war against the Dutch. Among other clauses it was stipulated that England would support any claims that Louis might get to the Spanish succession. To allay suspicion, the formal treaty was concluded through the ordinary diplomatic channels on December 31, omitting all mention of religion.

In an attempt to unite the English people behind the war with Holland, and as a sign of good faith to Louis XIV, Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence in 1672, suspending all laws against Roman Catholics and non Anglican Protestants. Parliament refused to fund or send money to the war. However, Charles rethought the plans. After he rethought the idea, Parliament passed the Test Act requiring all civil and military officials of the crown to swear an oath against the doctrine of transubstantiation. Which no loyal Roman Catholic could do. Parliament had aimed the Test Act largely at the king's brother, James, Duke of York, heir to the throne and a recent, devout convert to Catholicism.

The Enlightenment was inspired by the scientific revolution. It was a self conscious movement in it's own right. Unlike the scientific revolution, the enlightenment was named by it's own participants. They discussed vigorously what sorts of improvement was needed. While it had it's roots in the 17th century the enlightenment did not have a reach of height until the second half of the 18th century.

Although many participants in this looked to France and Britain as models, the movement found adherents in cities and towns across the continent. Their common interest in reason and reform changed the national boundaries as well as the divide between republican and monarchist political systems. Some of the ideas had a direct impact on rulers in central and eastern Europe. These rulers, whose policies came to be called enlightened absolutism, sought to centralize their authority so as to reform their countries.

War of the Spanish Succession, conflict that arose out of the disputed succession to the throne of Spain following the death of the childless Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. In an effort to regulate the impending succession, to which there were three principal claimants, England, the Dutch Republic, and France had in October 1698 signed the First Treaty of Partition, agreeing that on the death of Charles II, Prince Joseph Ferdinand, son of the elector of Bavaria, should inherit Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies. Spain’s Italian dependencies would be detached and partitioned between Austriaand France. In February 1699, however, Joseph Ferdinand died. A second treaty, signed on June 11, 1699, by England and France and in March 1700 by the Dutch Republic, awarded Spain and the Spanish Netherlands and colonies to Archduke Charles, second son of the Holy Roman emperor Leopold I, and Naples, Sicily, and other Spanish territories in Italy to France.

On 27 June, during the first skirmishes, a stray Russian shot struck Charles in the foot. The wound became serious and for two days Charles’s life hung in the balance. Although he recovered, he was unable to lead his army in person. Command was transferred to Field Marshal Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld and General Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt. Knowing the Swedish lacked cohesive leadership, Peter crossed the Vorskla and dug in his army of 40,000 near Poltava. He set up a T-shaped series of redoubts in the woods southwest of his position along the route the Swedish would have to take to attack. The positions would provide flanking fire against the advancing Swedes and help protect the main camp.

Charles XII was not the simple and uneducated soldier-king he has often been made out to be. His intellectual pursuits were many and varied. He became increasingly occupied with new ideas in administration, and many of his administrative reforms were far ahead of their time. He demanded considerable sacrifices of those classes in Sweden who were lukewarm about the war effort once the years of bad fortune set in after 1709.

The Great Northern War was military conflict in which Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland challenged the supremacy of Sweden in the Baltic area. The war resulted in the decline of Swedish influence and the emergence of Russia as a major power in that region. Sweden had consolidated its control of the Baltic, thus preventing Russian possession of a port on that sea and permitting Polish and German access to the sea only on Swedish terms. The Swedes also had one of the better armies in Europe. Sweden's economy however, based on the export of iron, was not strong enough to ensure continued political success.

Peter I, ushered in an era in which the church government was fundamentally transformed. Instead of being governed by a patriarch or metropolitan. The government of the church came under the control of a committee known as the Most Holy Governing Synod. This which was composed both of bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Emperor. This left a great legacy for Peter the Great, himself.

The Table of Ranks was a classification of grades in military, naval, and civil services. These were split into 14 categories, each for their own needs. This system, introduced by Peter I the Great, granted anyone who attained the eighth rank the status of a hereditary noble. It thus caused dissatisfaction among the old aristocracy, which lost its exclusiveness as well as its hereditary right to high office. The Table of Ranks, with minor changes, was used until 1917.

Industrial Revolution, in modern history, the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. This process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world. Although used earlier by French writers, the term Industrial Revolution was first popularized by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee (1852–83) to describe Britain’s economic development from 1760 to 1840. Since Toynbee’s time the term has been more broadly applied.
The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural. The technological changes included the following: (1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine, (3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy, (4) a new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division of labour and specialization of function, (5) important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and (6) the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of manufactured goods.

Neoclassicism is a style of decorative art that shows lots of style. The visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture are all inspirations of the style of art. This version of art began in Rome but was soon taken over by the Rococo style of art. It quickly spread all over Europe. This style was a spin off of classical European art.

Rococo Art, also commonly known as late Baroque Art, is a form of art that shows a difference in symmetry and classical art. Different artists used this style to change their way of designing art pieces. This style was commonly used for furniture design and simplistic architecture. During painting, this was purely a decorative style. Rococo Art simply lasted many many years.

The Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 was the reversal of longstanding alliances in Europe between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. Austria went from an ally of Britain to an ally of France, while Prussia became an ally of Britain. The diplomatic change was triggered by a separation of interests between Austria, Britain, and France. These alliances were constantly shifting and changing sides.

During this period, many people raged for their political needs. They wanted justice and that was going to be the answer. The French Revolution was sparked by the Enlightenment. Sadly, the Revolution failed to reach all the needs wanted by the citizens during it's time period. This movement played a critical role for modernizing the nation.

The Tennis Court Oath was an oath that defined the social classes. This helped the first estate separate from the third estate and define what the classes were capable of. This oath was seen as an act of defiance. The higher estates wanted to keep things separated as the lower estates wanted equality. This oath changed history and the way the estates treated each other.

The Women's March on Versailles, also known as The October March, The October Days, or simply The March on Versailles, was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. The market women and their various allies grew into a mob of thousands. The hunger and despair of the market women was the original idea for the march, but what started as a search for bread soon took on a much more ambitious goal. As more and more women arrived, and the crowd outside the city hall reached between six and seven thousand.

A time when the Committee of Public Safety was executing anyone who they thought didn't support the Revolution. In total this was about 25,000 people. During this period, people perceived to be against the Revolution were publicly executed by guillotine. Both the Jacobins and the Girondins supported the end of the monarchy