Italian Unification

Young Italy was a secret society, founded in 1831 by Mazzini, this orginisation had an impact on the political development of Italy. it was crucial in speading Mazzinian ideas. it held a strong belief in the people and republican views.

There was a major outbreak of Cholera which had killed 65'000 people, many blamed Neapolitan rule for this disaster.

-The workers and peasants of the peninsula were even more hungry, poor and desperate than usual, and this added to the tensions before 1848.
-Enclosure of the common land by the rich took fertile land for grazing away from the poor in the years leading up to 1848.
-The harvests of 1846 and 1847 had been catastrophic and as a result prices of food and grain had risen dramatically.
-Industrial workers in the cities in the North had been laid off due to over production.
-The cities and towns were full of unemployed and desperate workers from the countryside chasing the same jobs as those who had been laid off in the cities.

Everywhere public order was threatened; there were frequent riots and demonstrations.

Pius IX was elected as Pope in 1846 and at first was seen as a liberal Pope.
-On his election he released political prisoners.
-In 1847 press censorship by the Church was ended, this move allowed the creation of a freer press that was to have important consequences.
-A civic guard of local people was created to protect property.
-A council of state or consulta was set up in 1847 to advise the Papacy on how to run the Papal states. Although it's powers were limited to many liberals it was the first step towards the elected parliament they wanted.
As a result, many saw this new pope as being more liberal and had hopes that he would support change in Italy.

-Austria grew alarmed at the changes and ideas and sent troops to garrison the city of Ferrara in the papal states - as they were entitled,
- It was a warning to the states of Italy, a reminder that Austria was in charge and in case to put down any revolutions.
-Many Italians reacted furiously, Pius XI sent a formal complaint and this was seized by the radicals and reformers as a further sign that Pius might be the one to lead Italy against Austria.

In 1847 like the other rulers of Italy Charles Albert was under pressure. Protests and riots in Genoa and Turin in favour of greater political freedom forced Charles Albert to consider the introduction of a constitution.
This he agreed to do until 1847 - although it wasn't put in place until the following year,

There was a revolution in Paris which toppled Louis Philippe, the last king of France and turned France into a republic.

-Revolutionaries demanded the return of the 1812 constitution and independence for Sicily from Naples.
-The revolutionaries had taken over most of the island by April despite 5000 soldiers and the shelling of the Capital by the Navy.
-They then elected a parliament which declared Sicily's independence.
-The Sicilian revolutionaries were not interested in with national unity, this was a separatist movement with the aim of breaking away from Naples.
-It took the Neapolitan army until May 1849 to crush the insurrection.

Riots in Vienna forced the resignation of Metternich - the Prime Minister who had done so much to keep Austria as the leading power in Europe and to maintain the status quo in Italy.

In protest at Austrian rule and high taxes the people of Lombardy stopped smoking. The tobacco tax brought a lot of money so the Austrians could not collect this tax.

In Milan five days (17th-22nd) of furious fighting in the streets led to the defeat and withdrawal of the Austrian army (led by General Radetsky). After some argument between the moderates who feared the creation of a rebublic, and the liberals who wanted a republic, the provisional Milanese government asked for Charles Albert to help them against the Austrians.

A Venetian republic was declared with Daniel Manin, a radical at its head. They too asked Charles Albert for help.

Pope Pius was not willing to upset Austria for the sake of unity, in response to General Durando's disobediance, Pius issued his famous allocution, the main points being:
1. Pius stated that the war against Austria did not have his blessing.
2. He highlighted the fact that Charles Albert was the aggressor in the war.
3.The idea of a united Italy was not one supported by the papacy and the Pope did not wish to be considered as the potential leader on any Italian federation.

There were five key reasons:
1. Divisions between revolutionaries.
The revolutions were still local, even though the excitement of the liberal Papacy and Charles Albert's war made them look 'Italian'. In Sicily the revolution renewed the call for independence. In Milan and Venice the revolutionaries were divided between republicans and those who feared a republic. Charles Albert wanted to expand Piedmont and be a great leader. Hatred of the Austrians only went so far - other than this they had differing motives.

1. The incompetence of Charles Albert -In the words of Denis Mark Smith Charles "waited for four days until he was satisfied that the war was likely to succeed and to be in Piedmontese interests."
2. Charles was afraid of a republic in Lombardy and a republican revolt in Piedmont. Consequently He didn't join until the 22nd by which time Radetsky had withdrawn to the border. -Charles saw himself as a great leader and liberator but he took no bold moves, his army was under-prepared and was weaker than Austria's. His Soldiers were not provided with maps of Lombardy. -He spent time holding plebiscites to ensure Lombardy and Venitia would be annexed showing his true motives. Instead of welcoming revolutionary troops he relied on the piedmontese army.

3. Because of the 'expansionism' that dominated his aims he could not work alongside republicans or those that supported the Pope.

4. The Papal Allocution
   The Pope issued his allocution and making it clear that he would not lead an Italian Federation, thus removing the papal 'seal of approval' for the war causing many soldiers to abandon the fighting and return home.

5. The power of Austria
   Austria's military might and Radetsky's leadership were crucial factors, as Darby put it "Italy's window of opportunity was open only as long as Austrian paralysis lasted". Radetsky was able to build his army up to 70'000 by the summer of '48 compared to Piedmont's 20-30'000.

6. Lack of foreign support
   -The threat from republican France and its refusal to help in 1849 when Charles tried to re-start the war with Austria meant Italy didn't have the strength to win independence.
   -Italy could't be helped from abroad without a challenge to Austria which in 1848 was too strong for any other state to contemplate.

-Following the allocution the Pope was becoming increasingly hated by radicals.
-Following the assassination of his Prime Minister the Pope fled Rome in November 1848.
-In February 1849 a new constitution for Rome was drawn up, Rome became a republic and the Pope's temporal power was removed.
-The City was led by Guiseppi Galletti when the Pope fled and after the constitution by three people including Mazzini.
-The new leaders introduced a series of radical laws (that lasted as long as the republic did.
1.They abolished the hated Macinato.
2.Press censorship was ended.
3. Land that had been owned by the Church was re-distributed.
-The Pope called on the Catholic powers to restore him.
-Louis Napoleon responded by sending 20'000 French troops - France's first involvement in foreign affairs since Napoleon was crushed.
-In April 1849 French troops landed near Rome.
-The defence of the city was led by Garibaldi, it took until the end of July '49 for the city to fall to the French.
-Garibaldi however was a hero of the defence but had to lead his supporters over the Apennine Mountains; his pregnant wife died with the many others.

The 1850's were an important period of political and economic development and change in Piedmont.
-In 1850 Cavour was made Minister of Trade and Agriculture, soon after he was given responsibilities over shipping to which he added technological improvement.
-Prompted by Cavour in 1845 the piedmontese government had begun a limited programme of railway construction, Having visited Britain Cavour was a firm believer in the future of railways. The result was by the end of the 1850's approximately 850km of railway track in operation.
-In 1853 the electric telegraph linking Turin to Paris flourished.
-The textile industry flourished with the removal of tariffs.
-The building of canals began in 1857 further boosted the construction industry.
-By the end on 1851 he had signed trading treaties with states including Portugal, France, Britain and Belgium. The aim of these was to ensure both political support and economic growth.
- Between 1850-59 imports and exports increased by 300 percent.

Both political and economic change enhanced Piedmont's role as the potential leader of the peninsula, and the state most likely to expel Austria as a modernised state.

-Formed in the mid 1850's the membership of the National society was dominated by Italian exiles living in Piedmont.
-It's aim was to promote the cause of Italian unity.
-Many of its supporters had supported Mazzini.
-Yet its leaders were prepared to accept that unification that might come under a Piedmontese Monarchy than a republic.
-In 1856 Cavour, who was still sceptical of unification, met Manin (a leader) but despite these two men disagreeing over the future of Italy. In the same year Cavour met Garibaldi, these contacts were to come in useful in later years.

A member of the Piedmontese government (Giuseppe Siccardi) brought in a series of bills that were passed. These bills controlled the power of the Church:

1.Separate law courts for priests and other ecclesiastical people were abolished because their existence conflicted with the statuto which said all justice came from the King.
2. The right for criminals to seek sanctuary in churches was abolished.
3. Religious groups like monasteries were restricted in their right to buy property.
4. The number of feast days on which people were forbidden to work was abolished.

Cavour becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont

Napoleon III becomes Emperor of France.

In 1854 Britain and France declared war of Russia and sent troops to fight in the Crimea.
In January 1855 Cavour decided to join the war on the allies side and he dispatched the 15'000 troops to the Crimea. He took this decision for a number of reasons:
-Austria remained neutral, making enemies of Russia a powerful state.
-British anf French forces had been ravaged by cholera and knowing reinforcements were needed they put pressure of piedmont.
-Victor Emmanuel II made it clear that he would replace Cavour following is reluctance for war.

At the congress of Paris neither Britain or France was prepared to alienate Austria by addressing any Piedmontese request for a change in the status quo in the north of Italy, yet Cavour did achieve a number of points:
1. His attendance was a sign of Piedmont's growing diplomatic stature.
2. The 'Italian question' was discussed.
3. The French and British were grateful to Britain for it's support.

-At Plombieres Cavour had promised 100'000 troops but these were hard to find, the National Society found 20'000 recruits and in the end the Piedmontese numbered 60'000.
-There was no poular enthusiasm for the war, it was not seen as freeing italy bus as engineered by Cavour.
-A war in northern Italy was unpopular in Europe, to many Austrian influence would be replaced with French, they pressed for a congress of powers to resolve the issue.
-In March 1859 the Piedmontese army mobilised and the Austrians followed suit.
-23rd April the Austrians demanded Piedmontese demobilisation within three days, when it was not forthcoming war was declared on 29th April

-Four Italians led by Count Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon, the rationale behind this was that France would return to a republic that would support the creation of an Italian republic.
-The bomb failed to harm Napoleon but killed several and injured many more.
- At his trial Orsini appealed to Napoleon to support Italian unification, this then supposedly led to Plombieres.

It was agreed at a secret meeting that France would join Piedmont in a war against Austria, other terms were:
1. A kingdom of upper Italy would be created to cover Piedmont (ruled by house Savoy) , Lombardy and Venitia and the duchies of, Parma, Modena.
2. A kingdom of central Italy would be made of the central duchies Tuscany, Umbria and the papal marshes.
3. Rome and the surrounding area would remain in control of the papacy.
4. The King of Naples would be left as it was.
5. In return for the 200'000 troops Napoleon demanded Savoy and Nice.
6. The agreement was to be settled with the marriage of 15 year old Marie-Clothilde (daughter of Victor Emmanuel) to Prince Jerome Bonaparte.

-Napoleon disapproved of the revolutions in central Italy and vied for peace.
-Austria agreed that Lombardy should be given to France but Venitia was still to be Austrian.
-Piedmont was not to have control of Modena or Parma.
-An Italian federation headed by the Pope was to be set up.
-Cavour resigned and was not present at the signing of the Treaty of Zurich.

In April 1859 - in Florence there was a demonstration against the Grand Duke Leopold, he fled and Baron Bettino Ricasoli led a government that favoured union with Piedmont.

May 1859 - National Society engineered peaceful revolutions in Tuscany, Modena and Parma, all the leaders fled leaving provisional governments in control.

June 1859 - The Duke of Modena and the Duchess Regent of Parma fled and were replaced with a government led by Luigi Farini, that was close to Piedmont and all major decisions were made in Turin.

The Austrians were defeated and so much blood was spilt that 'Magenta' is now a colour.

The Austrians were defeated and driven out of Italy.

The treaty that formerly ended the war.

-Social unrest, especially among the lower classes, occurred due to poor conditions, and the fact that the Risorgimento benefited only the bourgeoisie vast-land owning classes.
-New taxes were introduced by the Piedmontese state to pay for the 2.5 billion lira of national debt accumulated from the recent wars.
- Many turned to brigandage in the mountains to continue the fight against the northern invaders.
- Amongst the brigands were a mixture of people, with different working backgrounds and motives, but the same desire to defeat the common enemy.
-They launched attacks against the Italian authorities (who were regarded as foreigners) and the land owning upper-classes, coming to be viewed by many of the common people as Robin Hood like figures, some of them gained celebrity in the area via the spreading of their stories.
-Civil liberties were repressed in the South and the piedmontese deployed an army of 12'000 to deal with the threat.
-In total several thousand southerners were arrested and executed, while many more were deported or fled the country.

-All males over 21 were given the vote in the plebiscites engineered by Cavour via the National Society with help from Ricasoli and Farini.
- The choice was annexation to the constitutional monarchy of Victor Emmanuel or to be a separate kingdom, this choice remaining deliberately vague.
-All were in favour of annexation.

-The reaction of Garibaldi to the surrender of Nice his birthplace was to organise a force to prevent its annexation.
-The group became known as 'The Thousand' and met at the port of Genoa.
-In April 1860, news arrived of a rebellion on Sicily, Garibaldi was persuaded by his followers to help and they sailed.
-At Sea Garibaldi declared that they were going to liberate Italy in the name of "Italy and Victor Emmanuel".
-On the 11th of May Garibaldi arrived in Sicily and as they marched to Palmero their ranks were swelled by Sicilians.
-On the 15th May, their first encounter with the Neapolitan army at Calatafimi was a sensational victory, Palmero was taken later that month and the island conquered by the end of July.
-Cavour panicked and sent two agents to the Island to secure its annexation to Piedmont but both failed, Garibaldi retained control.

Garibaldi's expedition was unpopular in France but they could do nothing as the British were supportive and their navy allowed Garibaldi and his thousand to cross the Straights of Messina to the mainland of Naples.

-Garibaldi made increased his numbers with the peasantry, making promises of land and using religion etc.
-They were fighting in the name of Victor Emmanuel.
-Victory was achieved on the 26th October 1860.

-Cavour was worried that Garibaldi would continue on to take Rome, regardless of the international consequences.
-The National society organised an uprising in the papal states on the 8th September. -Cavour demanded that the Papal army be disbanded rather than suppress the uprising, yet the uprising was a damp squib and many people internationally complained that Cavour was acting in breach of international law.
-However Cavour continued and invaded the papal states (with Napoleon's permission as long as Rome was untouched) on the 11th September 1860.
-On the 18th September the papal army was destroyed at the battle of Castelfidardo.

-Plebiscites in Naples ans Sicily were arranged asking 'One, Italy, Victor Emmanuel, yes or no?'.
-The results were overwhelmingly for but it was more to be rid of the Bourbons than anything else.

Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel make a triumphal entry into Naples and Garibaldi formerly handed over his conquests.
Garibaldi asked to rule the South for a year and was refused so returned to Caprera promising to free Rome.

-A challenge against the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and the French emperor Napoleon III had guaranteed the independence of Rome from Italy by stationing a French garrison in Rome.
-Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions. Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed he had the secret support of his government.
-In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed at Palermo, seeking to gather volunteers for the impending campaign under the slogan Roma o Morte (Rome or Death).
- An enthusiastic party quickly joined him, and he turned for Messina, hoping to cross to the mainland there. When he arrived, he had a force of some two thousand, but the garrison proved loyal to the king's instructions and barred his passage. T
-He turned south and set sail from Catania, where Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at Melito on 14 August, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains.
-Far from supporting this endeavour, the Italian government was quite disapproving and sent a force to stop him.
-On 28 August the two forces met in the rugged Aspromonte.
- The fighting ended quickly, as Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy.
- Many of the volunteers were taken prisoner, including Garibaldi, who had been wounded by a shot in the foot.

The Pope signed the Syllabus of Errors:
-Pius rejected most of the philosophies developed in the nineteenth century from communism to nationalism and liberalism to nationalism.
-He claimed for the church control over the education system and therefore all culture and science.
-The Catholic Church rejected the idea of tolerance for other religions.
-The Church asserted the idea of the continuing temporal power of the Papacy.

On 20th June 1866 Italy declared war on Austria with Prussia, yet the Italians were defeated at the battles of Custcozza and Lissa. However the Austrians were beaten at Sadowa by Prussia. Austria was forced to cede Venice to France who promptly gave it to Italy.

1867 Garibaldi made a second attempt to capture Rome, but the papal army, strengthened with a new French auxiliary force, defeated his badly armed volunteers at Mentana.

As the Prussian army threatened French borders in the Franco Prussian War, the French troops left Rome.
-The Italians invaded, there was little support despite the results of the plebiscite held on 2 October.
-Rome was pronounced the capital of Italy and Pius IX named himself "a prisoner in the Vatican" excommunicating Victor Emmanuel and his government.

-Charles declared war on Austria saying Italy would "make herself, by herself", and marched troops into Lombardy.
- Other troops from Naples, under the command of Pepe, and from the Papal states under Durando marched north to help Piedmont, Lombardy and Venice in a 'Princes war' that seemed to offer independence from Austria.
- Austria was on a back foot and had lost the leadership of Metternich, it's troops were withdrawn to fortresses on the border and almost all large Italian states were in open revolt against Austrian rule.
-Yet by July 1848 Piedmont had been defeated in the battle of Custcozza, and by August Lombardy had been recaptured, and the republic of Venice put under siege.
- By August 1849 absolute rule had been restored to Naples, Sicily the papal states and the central duchies and Austria had regained control over Lombardy and Venitia.

-The revolutions in Sicily were spreading to the mainland and King Ferdinand was forced to grant a constitution.
-Although this constitution was very conservative and saved much power to the King, it did raise liberal expectations elsewhere in the peninsula.
-Ferdinand only issued the constitution because he could not rely on Austrian support as his father had done because Pope Pius IX refused to let their troops cross the Papal states.