Science post-1900

-Coined by the historian Lavine
-Discoveries of X-Rays and radioactivity related since both involved emission of radiation BUT x-rays continued to be broadly used and researched whilst material for radioactivity was too rare so only researched in a couple of centres such as in Paris by Marie Curie who won Nobel Prize in 1903 -->first time big in the news --> both very promising in good AND bad ways (medicine/new energy vs. destroying --> radium watch dials vs. radium girls 1938 BUT also positive side destroying cancer etc) SO dialogue damage/healing and fear/hope from beginning

• One of best known scientist early 20th c
• Work involved sea urchins and artificial asexual reproduction --> in headlines newspapers that he created life
• Set context for more coverage of related research
• Gets even more attention when he becomes head of division Experimental Biology at the Rockefeller Institute in 1910 --> high expectations due to funding philanthropists with clear claim

Experimental biology takes over from observational biology in Cambridge although continue alongside each other, for instance Michael Forster teaching physiology

• Most notorious/famous German scientist (zoologist)
• Worked out phylogeny/pedigrees for humans amongst others--. important in geology
• 1868: history of Creation -->Darwinist system --> accepted by life scientists BUT evolutionary morphology is challenged in 1880's by physiological approaches
• Controversial due to rejection limits science and monism --> critics see as form materialism as molecules have a soul etc -1899 The Riddle of the Universe --> 10x as many sold as former book --> talks about monist philosophy, make anti-church argument (and sets of German Monist League in 1906 with 1907 Kepler League in response harmonising Christianity and science) AND demands more science teaching after biology ban of 1882 --> can even explain feelings with physical phenomena
• Lenin says the 'Riddle a weapon in class struggle' --> form of government 'subordinate question'

• Established out of worries falling behind on competitors and patents on lightbulbs were about to run out, ie market competition
• Chemist Willis R. Whitney first director --> exemplifies belief difference research and industry and hires people by promising greater freedom and greater funds --> gets William Coolidge (tungsten as lightbulb filament) and Irving Langmuir (Nobel Prize chemistry)
• Labs proof usefulness quickly and other companies follow example
• New category of scientific professional BUT less prestigious (stigma) so need to emphasise freedom

In Paris, organised by the French Physical Society. Opening speech by physicist Alfred Cornu, who says that pure science is always profitable to humanity and that it is more important than competition between nations. Although clearly patriotic displays in same building etc., but compare to later!

• Origin unitary science living beings dubious but institutionalised, mainly through education, around 1900
• Civic Biology (1914) by George W. Hunter and Elemnatry Biology (1919) by Benjamin Gruenberg in NYC used to train children to adapt to life in industrial cities etc --> framework progressive (rather than human) evolutionism and 'urban biology'
• Expanding public schools and mandatory state-funding encouraged raframing botany, zoology etc into biology textbooks in USA
• In univeristy department more generally oriented biology departments instead --> autonomy from medical/agricultural roles BUT at same time general science of life forms also more specialisation into for instance experimental embryology and endocrinology

Experiment done in 1866 but picked up then since Mendel had a special law for hybrids but these biologists wanted GENERAL law --> typical for this time when biologists make very general claims from looking at very specific species. This also results of that by '30s people specialise whole career on one organism BUT also still those wanting breadth of course. Also rhetorical importance of experiment although mainly still analysis in reality

National Life from the Standpoint of Science --> argues that population should be homogenised so have common interest etc --> in wake depression etc.etc.

New form public support --> philanthropic funding by people with wealth to redeem their reputations and create a root for future and fame

Eugenics Laboratory as part of UCL led by Karl Pearson --> statistics to correct+extend Galton
Use data to classify and select

Intelligence test for schoolchildren developed in France, later taken into the US where Lewis Terman, Henry Goddard and others apply to immigrants and later on committees suggest to apply to soldier recruitment since not know them BUT using on new audience makes it shift emphasis to detect highly intelligent rather than feeble-minded. Post-war popularisation testing for many different things

Annus mirabilis papers, 4 articles said to radically change physics BUT narrative overstated since already ideas out there AND was already part of physics community. Worked in patent office on patens coordination clocks in electrical network so problem simultaneity time well-known to him and he gave new foundations to not new ideas by combining current ideas on electromagnetism and thermodynamics. Already read Poincare who says no absolute time and who looks at simultaneity. Product modernity, need for telegraphs, trains etc and status symbol military etc BUT Einstein takes out master clock. Audiences

Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality after other works about dreams etc --> later on expanded by many others in psychoanalytic movement ESPECIALLY after WWI when shell shock etc AND break-down pre-war values etc so instinct becomes appropriate Freud becomes celebrity
- Psychoanalytic movement helped by market therapies
- Adding sex to Darwinism

Mostly middle-class professionals and many women, incl. H.G. Wells, Keynes, Churchill, Marie Stopes etc. BUT never more than 800 members and not very succesful: no decrease birthrate lower classes, report for feeble-minded incl. voluntary sterilisation AND mental deficieny act but not much new

Wrote The Interpretation of Radium based on lectures given --> talks about possibilities if manage to control the production of energy --> compares to fire and says might be able to create changes as radical as fire

• At Rockefeller institute --> example of scientist who due to new funding structure of mainly private was expected to deliver in public to keep funding going etc. BUT not first public scientists since for instance Louis Pasteur also 'theatre of proof' for rabies etc. AND after war emphasis on scifi etc away
• Cultivated cells outside the body --> get chicken cells to beat in culture and keep on dividing --> reported in terms new immortal life!
• Example 1900 optimism that life will soon be immortilised etc. BUT by '30s recognize complexity BUT still think human biology will transform life as exemplified in the writing of Brave New World (Huxley) and other BUT also exmplify fears (scientists as heroes and frankensteins...)
• Nobel Prize and high public profile BUT media often misrepresented work saying heart alive AND he wanted to experiment on humans but this wasn't received very well

• Publishes 'Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It' --> pro cpomletely emulating natural science and being objective and against any kind of subjective interpretations --> partially to help reputation up from its inferior stance in society (he's American)
• Wundt in Germany similar view

Government body UK but made decisions funding independently of the government

Writes The World Set Free in which he, inspired by Soddy, explores the possibilities of an 'atomic bomb' --> not remarkable anticipation BUT instead creating a cultural environment in which bombs could be possble

• Scientists as cultural warrios --> civilisation more important than national interest, compare to fall ancient Greece
• Einstein, Nicolai and Forster
• In response to German sacking of Belgian Louvain library BUT backlash as cilvil linked to military as many start to boycot German scientists BUT Nobel Prizes in opposite direction to try to resuscitate Germany

• New weapons such as gas warfare and submarines BUT more importantly works scientists to maintain supplies critical resources --> scientists as disciplinary patriots (
• Scientists initially mainly valued as solidiers (Henry Moseley UK and Karl Schwartzschild Germany) BUT scientists like H.G. Wells want greater role for scientists --> eventually advisory boards set up even though already military innovation etc.
• Importance aritallry (5m deaths versus 3m small guns) so important for science to improve aims, precision etc. BUT didn't make huge difference since both sides did

In US, run by Edison and dominated by commercial investors. Antisubmarine research BUT also NAtional Research Council organised by the National Academy of Sciences utilising physicists and mathematicians and using info UK+France

• Book by Thomas Hunt Morgon who was professor at Columbia --> wrote book with junior colleagues chromosome theory of gene and also making first genetic maps BUT grounded in practical imperative of chosing organism, engineering organism and use technologies sustaining culture of workplace
• Use Drosophila since good for students and D. Melanogaster for experiments on evolution--> breed reactor as part of discussion what natural selection can/can't change
• Now quantitative mapping based on standard fly with emphasis no longer on Mendelian classification based on organs but on interlinkages between groups etc.
• New ways of working --> open community with culture exchange et which fits the idea of mapping bUT this does mean that need to control environment, engineering and papers precisely.

• State managing science more directly than before
• Primary aim production useful goods but also investments in pure science

Scientists provide expertise but are NOT a source of values

• By Arthur Eddington, to test Einstein theory light rays. Earlier attempts by Freundlich failed due to confinement in Russia and bad weather (1914) and by US people in Washington also failed due to bad weather (1918). Wants to promote co-operation+pacification (Quaker background etc) and show UK that can be friend with Germany and not all bad etc. --> control press response (want to work with Germans despite bad reputation, Einstein image made then)

• Otherwise known as monkey trial
• Against Butler act to teach anything other than creationsim but teacher Scopes from Dayton taught from Hunter's Civic Biology
• Whereas in early 20th c wide consensus evolutionism, later protestant fundamentalism and biblical literalism
• Butler Act to ease passage general education bill when expansion north to south of urban biology to rural south
• Large media-event --> Dayton trying to get attention as old industrial town etc.
• Framed as science vs. religion, with Scopes as symbol
• Dayton as failed industrial town and civic biology saying progress through industrialisation etc --> par tof wider socio-political protest

• Create division for 'fundamental' research
• Hire Wallace Carothers who by 1930 demonstrates that polymers are single molecules (fundamental question that had been puzzling chemists) AND developed two polymers that turned out to be useful (synthetic rubber and synthetic fiber ie nylon)
• Seen as proof that 'linear model' of innovation (research --> development --> production --> marketing) works BUT were already working in relevant/interesting area AND it took a loooong time AND purposefully hired scientists who'd want this/be good at this

• First helped refugees coming to France to get funding --> then helps those in danger out of France in 1940 --> helps set up exchange with especially UK after WWII to build up sciences in France again
• Rebuilding sciences here in general international aid projcet --> partially helped by Rockefeller Foundation grants for equipment AND conferences (ie collaboration)

Collectivism important in soviet agriculture BEFORE Frenkel developed his collective understanding of atoms --> use collectivism as a metaphor going from the social to the physical --> valance electrons becomes free of particular atoms and can glide to the other AND ions can exchange
places with a hole moving through the solid
- Other Soviet example is Mach (use for creativity)

Psychologist at Cambridge rejecting use statistics and mathematics and embracing mental states and other less quantifiable phenomena --> Still succesful!

Schizophrenia, deafness --> courts of genetic health, more than 375,000 sterilized

Anticipated possibility neutron induced chain reactions (unlike Fermi who didn't enough inspiration) --> took out a patent in 1936 assigned to British Admiraly for secrecy --> persuades Roosevelt via Einstein to be warned that Germany might be making a bomb --> helps stimulate US project
- Szilard often refers to H.G. Wells books in talking about the potential of bombs!
- Atomic bombs had to be naturally but also culturally+ technically possible --> all come together at some point!!

In-vitro fertilisation of rabbit eggs --> in newspapers depicted as Bokanovsky, the cloning scientist in Brave New World BUT he also received public critique which prevented him from staying at Harvard --> Public profile thus not always good for people!

Achived chrystallisation of tobacco mosaic virus at Rockefeller institute as well at same time Carrel's glass heart BUT he didn't receive media attention (wins nobel prize in 1942 though)

Kill those who are 'incurably sick' at extermination camps -->

• In Berlin and Scandinavia by Otto Hahn and Fritzstrassman and Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch respectively --> influence war there since Lise first worked with Otto --> training shapes imagination BUT also scientific community fragmented by political events

• Emergency Rubber Project after rubber supplies cut off due to war with Japan in 1942 --> more than 1000 people, again multidisciplinary trying to find way to grow domestic rubber --> best-funded project ever
• Manzanar Guayule Project --> humanitarian project by Caltech to use Japanse-Americans in camps in California to work most promising rubber plant --> turned showers etc. into labs (as opposed to immigrant like Szilard who were welcomed with open arms!)

• Pacifist and example of early critic of science and its relationship to the military --> criticised scientists who criticised the war since they themselves actively helped in creating all the badness.

• Penicillin --> developed in UK but needed more resources which were provided by warfare programs in the USA --> example war contirbutions to pharmaceutical infrastructure+collaboration scientists/industry+science good for war
• Nuclear medicine --> new need for atomic medicine as workers at MP exposed BUT also after project since labs permanent and whole populations were exposed AND also more opportunities for nuclear medicine (cyclotrons and artificial radioisotopes for distribution) due to increased infrastructure --> also influence ecology, etc by using radioisotopes to track so profound impact all of biology --> AGAIN war is good for science BUT Atomic Energy Commission also uses this medicine to show the GOOD side of a BAD scientific discovery
• Cohn at Harvard Medical School --> already doing research into protein structures in blood but then turns basic laboratory into lab to find out about blood transfusion --> national well-known but unlike others did not want to turn back to basic research (compare to George Beadle at Stanford with biochemical genetics program)

• Before this many countries looking into atomic weapons according to normal academic procedures, incl. US BUT in 1942 things change
• Manhattan Project is under complete military control + industrial model research (incl usual problems scientists within that) + extraordinary level government funding + interdisciplinary working of physicists and chemists
• Compartmenetalized project led by committee incl. Grover, BUsh and Conant BUT ready to change organisation at any point
• Physicists and chemsits involved but later government makes it sound as physicist war since convey basic physics after dropping the bomb but do NOT tell people chemistry/metallurgy --> believe physicists war because government wants us to
• MAterials produced at Oak Ridge, TN and Hanford, WA
• Bombs produced at Los Alamos Laboratory

• Paddy essay, three main points of politicalisation: 1) America providing funding to help re-build European scientific traditions BUT obviously with its own political agenda in their head 2) Scientists after Hiroshima and Nagasaki setting up organisations arguing against secrecy, for the internationalisation of information and international control of weapons. Examples of these organisations were Atomic Scientists of Chicago, Association of Oak Ridge Scientists. They lobbied directly with politicians and through radio programs etc. BUT not very successful and even critiqued because went against Cold War atmosphere etc --> 'un-American' or communist 3) Molecular biologists capitalised on same political narratives of the time by appealing to political nature of wartime physics.Say stuff like the the 'physics of life' instead of death and in the same way as 'Atoms for Peace' use politically charged image of the atom to emphasise the importance for biology etc.
• Stafford Warren (inventor mammogram) used radio to publicise work
• Walter Schmitt spoke of Manhattan Project of Disease
• Evans --> atom could save more lives than it killed

• The Endless Frontier report published
• Example of scientist who has learned political strategies BUT also promoting general feeling wanting to continue state funding but without strings attached --> uses evidence wartime successes basic science (nuclear) to advocate for basic science by promoting the 'linear model' of how science ought to be funded (also align with free enquiry in capitalist society!)

US proposal to the UN for an international atomic regulatory body and elimination of atomic weapons BUT Soviet Union not up for this because UN was mainly US and its allies and could thus not be trusted --> arms race but soviet nuclear weapons by 1949 --> more global political instability incl. Civil War in China and the Korean War which all added to cold war tensions

• Research ANd Development organisation --> operations research model taken over from physical sciences and put into social sciences!
• Focus on systems analysis and game theory with key figures Robert McNamara and Herman Kahn, posing theory of mutually assured destruction based on this game theory, but also delivering information on public health etc.
• By 1950s mainly economists and less physicists/mathematicians and total of more than 200 employees

Physicists working at Berkeley had sign an oath saying there were not members of the communist party. Robert Oppenheimer was charged related to past associations with communists and also lost his security clearance because of it in 1954

• Continued organisation for state patronage of science base don aim to supprot basic research and decisions made in peer community BUT not only agency at the time and in general most money still to military, medicine etc. specific things (ie others more mission-oriented)
• Similar outcome in Britain with 1944 Royal Society report

Eisenhower speech at the UN --> idea provide access nuclear technologies without having other countries become atomic powers themselves (ie stockpile fissionable material etc.)
--> using science and technology as political tool (remnant from wars use of science as tool? --> in space race but also in collaboration European institutions etc)
- NOn-military atomic development BUT still part of military strategy --> better image US abroad, distract Russians from own project, gather technical/scientific information through 'open' exchange

American drop hydrogen bomb on remote pacific atoll BUT fallout effects people on nearby island as well as Japanese fishers on the Lucky Dragon --> diplomatic tensions and resulting mediastorm --> criticism need for nuclear weapons
- Additionally around the same time also public disagreement AEC and geneticists about whether radiation causes a risk for public health
BUT critique not taken seriously really and even scrutinized and most scientists enjoyed extra funding etc. and power to advise government through AEC etc.

Baby teeth

Also international conferences etc.

Women activists concerned about Strontium-90 in 1956 BUT only undertook action when Committee for Nuclear Information was formed in St Louis Washington --> showed that there was strontium-90 in milk --> campaigns to stop nuclear testing due to health concerns

Science movement only part of a larger movement of anti-war protests, civil rights movement (including feminists) and general unrest after the assassination of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King

• In farewell address wars against policy becoming captive to scientific elite --> part of wider critique of the increasingly intimate relationship between politics and science without many public statements etc. --> influence undemocratic
• Histoiran David Hollinger as well as Winston Churchill later on (right wing so wider worry!) worry about this as well

Project from government to demonstrate peaceful uses atom at home and abroad --> use in infrastructure projects and clearing projects

• Mao project to monitor earthquakes since many in that decade BUT part of a larger political program: 1) Against elistism --> oppress scientists and prevent uprise AND send lay people into labs and elitist into rural areas to equalise 2 Very little infrastructure for science etc. BUT do have this massive resource of people 3) Use of indigenous knowledge (snakes etc) and pure numbers, educate them all through intense propaganda in which all being heroes and helping the state 4) At the same time nation building --> gender equality, no more elitism, incentives from labour circumstances 5) Importance Engels essay in which talking about importance labour in evolution --> progress made through labouring of masses AND search for history of human beings would give justification for the political actions at the time SO palaeontology one of the biggest sciences under the reign of Mao --> very large scale due to large involvement 6) Succes questionable but Haicheng earthquake in 1975 seen as success since many people were evacuated (again also used as propaganda to show power state and how people who didn't go died)
• 'Science walking on two legs'
• Both projects show the importance of the science for political ideology and of political ideology for science!!

• Based at MIT, stike and protest that was soon taken up by 30 other universities going against the Vietnam war and the involvement of science in that and more in general is politics and war.

Alongside E F Schumacher, thought that science and technology could be a force for social good (as opposed to for instance the Science Action Coordination Committee who were very skeptical about technology in American society in general). Also includes Whole Earth Catalogs

Most famous protests movement in the '70s against individual scientists and institutions, especially MIT for it's military involvement. Gave out Dr Strangelove awards to Edward Teller and Glenn Seaborg for helping to commit heinous crimes. However they, as well as the Jason scientists, kept claiming that they were producing --> NOT all scientists against what doing AND movement includes scientists, politicians, students etc

Universities filed for a patent on the method of transferring plasmid DNA from one bacteria to the other --> example of commercialisation of biotech and science more in general (also seen in rise biotech companies)

President --> cut on a lot of research etc --> part of the reason for increased industrialisation in 80s as precentage government funding GDP goes down and industrialistion up --> now even more private funding than governmental