IB History

Walked out over Abyssinia

Walked out over Manchuria

*Only nation to remain a member throughout the League's existence

Excluded at first, eventually walked out over the Disarmament Conference

Initially excluded over Communist government. Later expelled over invasion of Finland

• Hitler started spending a lot of money on large public works projects such as the Autobahn which required mass employment

• Established by Josef Goebbels

• All films had to pass censors

• Radios VERY important

• Reich Radio Company controlled all radio emissions

• Cheap radios were mass produced so all households had one and could be influenced by propaganda at all times

Allowed indefinite detention without trial

• Allowed Hitler to make laws without consulting the Reichstag

• Very important step towards establishing authoritarian control

• Hitler's decisions of course

• Sterilisation for those who had hereditary or mental illnesses made compulsory.

• 320,000 people were sterilised

• Deprived Jews and non-Aryans of German Citizenship

• Continuation of the Nazi boycott of Jewish services/goods

• Russia wanted to expand further into Asia which eventually brought them into conflict with Japan

• Russia expected a quick victory which would impress the Russian population and distract them from domestic issues

• Sadly not to be; Russia embarrassed

• Japan made serious gains; first warning signs that this wouldn't be a quick victory as Russia had anticipated

Considered a dress rehearsal for the 1917 revolutions

CAUSES

1. Growing peasant unrest over high taxes, overpopulation, bad harvests from 1890s, and growing peasant LITERACY meant they were becoming more coordinated

2. Industrial unrest:

• Rapid industrial growth ended abruptly in 1899

  • Foreign investment dried up

• 1900-1905 recession caused high unemployment and wage cuts

• Increasing number of strikes in 1890s over terrible living/working conditions

1. Growing political opposition

• 1898 Social Democratic Party established - Marxist

• 1901 Social Revolutionary Party - Peasant revolution

• Liberals were angered by military failures against Japan

1. Growing unrest in non-Russian peoples

• Russification of Alexander III and Nicholas II

• Russian language and Orthodox Church imposed on non-Russian subjects

• Resulted in an increase in nationalism

1. Russo-Japanese War ('04 - '05)

• Embarrassing

1. BLOODY SUNDAY (catalyst)

• Protesters marched on Winter Palace in St. Petersburg

• Russian troops fired upon the crowd and killed over 1,000 unarmed civilians

• Resulted in general strikes around Russia

1. BLOODY SUNDAY (catalyst)

• Protesters marched on Winter Palace in St. Petersburg

• Russian troops fired upon the crowd and killed over 1,000 unarmed civilians

• Resulted in general strikes around Russia

• One of the largest land battles ever prior to WW1

• Last and decisive land battle of Russo-Japanese War

• Japanese victory; Russia driven out of South Manchuria

• Resulted in the establishment of the Duma

• This was undermined entirely by the issue of the Fundamental Law (1906) which gave Nicholas II the right to veto anything, and the Duma ministers were responsible to Nicholas II, not the Duma itself.

Unplanned, spur of the moment, protests over food shortages devolved into riots and spiralled out of control. Petrograd troops mutinied.

CAUSES:

1. WWI Military disaster:

• Russian mobilisation was quick and surprised Germans, yet Russian General Staff only planned for a 3 month war, so no plans for Munitions production were put in place.

• Russia could no compete with Germany's industrial strength.

• No Ministry of Supply was established and the Government reacted slowly to munition shortages.

• 1915, Nicholas II appointed himself Commander-in-chief, despire ministers' pleas for him not to

  • He was based hundreds of miles away from the Duma and ministers in Petrograd - In Magilen - Population blamed him for defeats.

• By 1917 over 10 million causualties

• Germany Occupied deep West Russia

• Morale was low

1. Economic woes

• Inflation was a huge problem, between 1914-1916 Government spending increased by 800%

• Prices increased by 400%

• Government was printing more money and abandoned the gold standard.

1. Food shortages

• 15 million peasants were called up to the army, therefore food production dropped and caused shortages throughout.
  

• Duma ignored dismissal and continued meeting.

• Decided that the establishment of a new government and the abdication of Nicholas II was necessary in order for order to be restored.

• Nicholas II agreed to sped down for his younger brother Michael

• Michael refuses and so a Russian Republic is formed

Provisional Government, led by Kerensky fell within 8 months of establishment because it failed to resolved the issues that faced the monarchy.

• PG had very few loyal troops left and the uprising had much support so there was relatively little fighting. Only 5 killed in Petrograd.

WHY WAS THE PG WEAK?:

1. Their own reforms

• Created liberal reforms such as freedom of press, release of political prisoners, abolition of the death penalty and the Tsarist secret police

1. Dual authority

• Provisional Government shared power with the Petrograd Soviet. The city's council extended its jurisdiction nationwide during revolution.

• While Petrograd slowly planned their system of Government, the Petrograd Soviet spead their influence and set up across Russia

• Essentially, the Provisional Government never had full control.

• Provisional Government represented propertied class; chosen by Duma. Petrograd Soviet represented the working class. CLASH.

1. Continued WW1 defeats

• PG did not sort out a treaty.

• Typified by the failed Kerensky Offensive. In June of 1917, Kerensky organised a massive offensive, which failed completely.

  • By July 7: 1 million casualties
  • Army started to lose faith in PG and morale

1. Peasant land seizures

• Provisional Government acknowledged that land redistribution was necessary but kept postponing it

• Peasants took the initiative and seized land, redistributed it themselves.

• Not efficient, led to food shortages and further damaged PG credibility.

HOW DID BOLSHEVIKS SEIZE CONTROL?

1. Lenin persuaded the Bolsheviks that a 2nd revolution was possible.

• The party initally believed that they should support the PG in order to prevent a RIGHT-WING COUNTER-REVOLUTION.

• Lenin convinced the Bolsheviks that it was not their duty to extend freedom to all classes, but to transfer power to the working class.

1. Lenin's policy of opposing the PG

• Bolsheviks became anti-PG, so when people stopped supporting PG, they turned to Bolsheviks.

1. Lenin revised Marx's line on the peasants

• Marx dismissed the peasants as incapable of acting as a revolutionary class

• Lenin argued that the Russian circumstances were such that the peasants could be a genuine revolutionary class

• Russia's population was 80% peasants at the time

• This resulted in a gain in Bolshevik support among the peasants and some Socialist Revolutionaries

1. Kornilov Affair (August 1917)

• General Kornilov, commander of Russian troops on the South-West front, believed it was necessary to destroy the Russian revolutionaries before Germany.

• Told Kerensky he would bring loyal troops to Petrograd to restore order - essential a coup d'etat

• Kerensky, short on support, released many Bolsheviks and armed them. Kornilov was stopped, and the incident further highlighted PG weaknesses and increased Bolshevik support

"Private ownership of land shall be abolished forever"

• Land given to the peasants. Was in line with Communist ideology and satisfied the peasants.

• The Bolsheviks, amongst many other, had criticised the Provisional Government's delay of elections. Lenin therefore let elections go ahead.

• Bolsheviks only won 24% seats in the election while Social Revolutionaries won the majority

• Bolsheviks withdrew and Lenin sent the Red Guard to slow it down; permanently dissolved.

• Lenin was opposed to Western ideals of democracy

• The Bolsheviks, amongst many other, had criticised the Provisional Government's delay of elections. Lenin therefore let elections go ahead.

• Bolsheviks only won 24% seats in the election while Social Revolutionaries won the majority

• Bolsheviks withdrew and Lenin sent the Red Guard to slow it down; permanently dissolved.

• Lenin was opposed to Western ideals of democracy

Opposition to the Bolsheviks formed in the Whites:

• Social revolutionaries (who had won the recent constituent election
• Supporters of the PG
• Supporters of Tsarism
• Nobles (who's land had officially been given away in the Land Decree)
  • USA
  • Britain
  • France
  • Italy
  • Japan

Started by Czech Legion, Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war who clashed with Bolsheviks and eventually joined Whites

WHY DID THE REDS WIN?

1. Whites lacked political unity or unified leadership - Diverse aims and composition

2. Whites failed to co-ordinate attacks

3. Communists were more unified + better leadership

• Lenin + Trotsky both excellent leaders

• All fighting for the same cause

1. Communists controlled more advantageous positions

• Industrial areas including Petrograd and Moscow

1. Lenin presented Bolsheviks as a patriotic force

• Whites were foreign supported too which helped

1. Foreign support for Whites was limited and eventually withdrawn

2. Peasants hated the Whites, who wanted to give the land back to the nobles

3. War Communism ensured that the Red Army was properly supplied

Communist Government survives

Lenin knew in order to consolidate power, he needed to quickly exit the war, which meant harsh punishment.

TERMS

• Russia lost Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Finland, Georgia.

  • 33% of its population
  • 33% of its arable land

• Massive reparations: 6000 million marks

• Russia to weak to fight on, Lenin wanted to focus domestically.

• Factories nationalised

• Food seized from peasants

• Old, inflation-ridden currency abandoned

  • Wages were now in food and fuel

RESULTS

• Peasants decided it was not worth growing food for Communists to steal

  • Resulted in famine - 7.5 million deaths
  • Mass migration away from cities

• Did not prevent industrial and agricultural output from falling

BUT, most importantly

• Ensured Red Army was supplied

• Banned factions within the Communist Party

• Example: Worker's Opposition who were banned and 150,000 of them were purged

• Facing economic collapse, War Communism abandoned

• Many members horrified as it was a retreat towards CAPITALISM.

  • Lenin displayed his leadership by convincing them

MAIN FEATURES

• Grain requisition ended

• Peasants had to sell 10% of their grain to the government as a form of tax, but the remainder they could sell.

• Introduction of a new currency

• Reintroduced private ownership of small-medium factories

RESULTS

Positives:

• Economy started to slowly recover, industrial output reached 1914 levels and agriculture started to pick up

Negatives:

• Trotsky criticised the 'Scissors Crisis'

• Essentially, food prices fell yet manufactured goods did not.

• Consequentially peasants could not afford tools and other goods needed.

• Soviet Socialist Republics could make minor policies such as those related to health and education

  • BUT, economic, foreign, and defence policies were all Moscow-controlled

• Dawn of the single-party state

• Lenin banned Menshivik + Socialist Revolutionary parties

  • Communist Party was the sole legal party
  • Single-party state

• Lenin expelled 100,000 members of the Communist party, mainly former Menshiviks and Socialist Revolutionaries

HOW DID STALIN EMERGE AS LEADER?

1. Party Position

• Member of Politburo

• General Secretary of Communist Party:

• Power to promote/dismiss officials

• Used this to his advantage, dismissed enemies and promoted friends.

• As party grew, power became more centralised meaning more power for Stalin

• Conversely, Trotsky held no positions of real power and so couldn't establish a power base.

1. Underestimated by colleagues

• Did not have charisma or confidence of Trotsky

• Once dubbed a 'grey blur'

• Therefore party members focused on preventing Trotsky from seizing control

• Party decided against posthumously publishing Lenin's Political Testament in which he was extremely critical of Stalin and recommended his dismissal. Lucky boy.

1. Trotsky flaws

• Trotsky was generally disliked, though of as arrogant; his own brilliance worked against him.

• Not fully trusted; had been a Menshevik and only joined Bolsheviks soon before the Bolshevik revolution

• Stalin outmanoeuvred Trotsky when he appeared at Lenin's funeral as the chief mourner after misleading Trotsky about the date

• Trotsky was ill and weak just when he needed to be strong

1. Sly politics; took advantage of disagreements

LEFT WING: Trotsky - "Abandon NEP!"

RIGHT WING: Bukharin - "Keep NEP!"

• Stalin initially supported the Right and used their support to dismiss the left

• Shortly after her turned against the right and their support of NEP in favour of rapid industrialisation and had them dismissed

• By 1930, he had the majority of his enemies replaced by supporters

• Industrial output increased by 236%!

• Chaotic, unorganised, goals constantly changing

• Moscow Metro, 1500 new factories built

• Eventually Stalin decided to end the plan in 4 years

Russia was '100 years behind other European nations'

Had to industrialise quickly to protect itself from attack, which Stalin anticipated

CARROT + STICK METHOD

Stalin employed both harsh measure and incentives to promote industrialisation

HARSH:

1. Iron discipline, workers threatened with punishment for absence or unfulfilled quotas

2. Gulags prisoners used for massive projects

3. Show trials of engineers and managers who were accused of 'industrial sabotage on behalf of capitalist powers' - Terrorised the workforce into compliance

INCENTIVES:

• Higher wages for skilled labourers and exceeded targets; although it was anti-Marxist

• Propaganda, heroes of socialist labour medals

HOW DID STALIN FIND THE RESOURCES?

• Collectivisation gave them more control of grain, used to feed growing towns and buy machines

• Heavy taxation

• Driving down living conditions

• Massively increasing industrial workforce

HOW SUCCESFUL?

• HUGE expansion of Soviet industry, although official statistics were over-exaggerated

• 1928-1940, Russia GDP tripled!

• USSR overtook Germany, UK and France in industrial output

• Literacy rate rose from 51% to 81%

  • 70,000 libraries built

Overall, very successful

• Argued that Stalin's relentless pace and ruthlessness resulted in industrialisation that ensured Russia survived Nazi invasion

24 million peasant households -> 240,000 collective farms

• NEP had enabled economic recovery but growth was now slowing.

• Collective ownership would replace individual ownership

• Collectivisation seen as a way to provide surplus food, money, and manpower required for rapid industrialisation

• Also seen as a way to eliminate class enemies, Kulaks and NEPmen who were products of NEP

• With party officials overviewing collectivise lands, the peasants could be kept under close watch and control

DEKULAKISATION

• Stalin aimed to 'liquidate the kulaks as a class'

• Winter 1929-30, 1.5 million kulaks had their land dispossessed

• Many were deported to Siberia, or shot

• This acted as a warning to other peasants

• By 1935, 90% of farmland had been collectivised

1932-33 Famine

• Man-made, result of collectivisation

• Government took to much and peasants resisted

• Most kulaks killed all their livestock

• Over 5 million starved

RESULTS

Positives:

1. Party had more control over peasants and countrysides

• Historians termed it as a new form of 'serfdom'

1. Party had huge control over grain which was:

a. Fed to growing industrial workforce

b. Exported and sold to fund industrialisation

1. Urban populations skyrocketed. People left rural areas because of collectivisation

• 12 million increase in first 5 years of collectivisation, which provided the workforce for 5 years plans

Negatives:

1. Grain production and overall productivity increased only slightly

• Peasants lacked incentives as land/crops were not theirs

• Party only gained control, not productivity

• Long term consequences - USSR had to buy large amounts of grain from USA and Canada in the 1960s

1. Livestock levels dropped dramatically and did not recover until 1950s

• Peasants slaughtered 50% of their livestock

• Learned from past mistakes, set lower targets

• Early on very successful, factories built in first 5 years plans were up and running

• BUT factories and workers were being overworked so productivity dropped

• Purges took away many skilled workers, managers, and engineers

OPPOSITION: In 1934, Sergei Kirov gains more votes than Stalin in Central Committee elections

• He is murdered; historians split over whether it was Stalin or not

• Stalin used Kirov's murder as an excuse

• So there probably was genuine concern over party opposition involved.

• Purges had always been common; eliminate class enemies and suppress political opposition

• 1936-38 was different, unlike anything seen before. The Great Terror saw a purger of over 1/3rd of the CP.

  • 600,000 killed
  • Millions of civilians and armed forces imprisoned
  • Gulags everywhere

WHY?

1. OLD RIVALS: Stalin wanted to build up his own reputation by eliminating old Bolsheviks and rivals

2. PERSONALITY played a role; Stalin was known to be vain, mistrustful and unforgiving

3. OPPOSITION: In 1934, Sergei Kirov gains more votes than Stalin in Central Committee elections

• He is murdered; historians split over whether it was Stalin or not

• Stalin used Kirov's murder as an excuse

• So there probably was genuine concern over party opposition involved.

EFFECTS

1. RIP

• 600,000 party members were killed

• Millions of normal citizens arrested and died

1. Army weakened

• Half of the Red Army officers were purged, weakening the army and further encouraging Hitler

1. Fear = Obedience

• Climate of fear developed in Russia following the purges; Stalin was successful in terrorising his population into obedience

1. Economy

• Purges affected economic growth as skilled labourers were also targeted

1. Party domination

• Stalin dominated the Communist Party now

1. Cult of personality

• Promoted the Stalin cult of personality

• Focus on industries linked to rearmament because Stalin was fearful of an attack by Hitler

• Cut short by Nazi invasion, June 1941